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Huang Z. Temporospatial Nestedness in Consciousness: An Updated Perspective on the Temporospatial Theory of Consciousness. ENTROPY (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 25:1074. [PMID: 37510023 PMCID: PMC10378228 DOI: 10.3390/e25071074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Time and space are fundamental elements that permeate the fabric of nature, and their significance in relation to neural activity and consciousness remains a compelling yet unexplored area of research. The Temporospatial Theory of Consciousness (TTC) provides a framework that links time, space, neural activity, and consciousness, shedding light on the intricate relationships among these dimensions. In this review, I revisit the fundamental concepts and mechanisms proposed by the TTC, with a particular focus on the central concept of temporospatial nestedness. I propose an extension of temporospatial nestedness by incorporating the nested relationship between the temporal circuit and functional geometry of the brain. To further unravel the complexities of temporospatial nestedness, future research directions should emphasize the characterization of functional geometry and the temporal circuit across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Investigating the links between these scales will yield a more comprehensive understanding of how spatial organization and temporal dynamics contribute to conscious states. This integrative approach holds the potential to uncover novel insights into the neural basis of consciousness and reshape our understanding of the world-brain dynamic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zirui Huang
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA;
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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2
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Comanducci A, Boly M, Claassen J, De Lucia M, Gibson RM, Juan E, Laureys S, Naccache L, Owen AM, Rosanova M, Rossetti AO, Schnakers C, Sitt JD, Schiff ND, Massimini M. Clinical and advanced neurophysiology in the prognostic and diagnostic evaluation of disorders of consciousness: review of an IFCN-endorsed expert group. Clin Neurophysiol 2020; 131:2736-2765. [PMID: 32917521 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2020.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of spontaneous EEG activity and evoked potentialsis a cornerstone of the instrumental evaluation of patients with disorders of consciousness (DoC). Thepast few years have witnessed an unprecedented surge in EEG-related research applied to the prediction and detection of recovery of consciousness after severe brain injury,opening up the prospect that new concepts and tools may be available at the bedside. This paper provides a comprehensive, critical overview of bothconsolidated and investigational electrophysiological techniquesfor the prognostic and diagnostic assessment of DoC.We describe conventional clinical EEG approaches, then focus on evoked and event-related potentials, and finally we analyze the potential of novel research findings. In doing so, we (i) draw a distinction between acute, prolonged and chronic phases of DoC, (ii) attempt to relate both clinical and research findings to the underlying neuronal processes and (iii) discuss technical and conceptual caveats.The primary aim of this narrative review is to bridge the gap between standard and emerging electrophysiological measures for the detection and prediction of recovery of consciousness. The ultimate scope is to provide a reference and common ground for academic researchers active in the field of neurophysiology and clinicians engaged in intensive care unit and rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Comanducci
- IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Milan, Italy
| | - M Boly
- Department of Neurology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA; Wisconsin Institute for Sleep and Consciousness, Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA
| | - J Claassen
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA
| | - M De Lucia
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Neuroimagerie, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - R M Gibson
- The Brain and Mind Institute and the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, N6A 5B7 University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - E Juan
- Wisconsin Institute for Sleep and Consciousness, Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - S Laureys
- Coma Science Group, Centre du Cerveau, GIGA-Consciousness, University and University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; Fondazione Europea per la Ricerca Biomedica Onlus, Milan 20063, Italy
| | - L Naccache
- Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, ICM, Paris, France; Sorbonne Université, UPMC Université Paris 06, Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - A M Owen
- The Brain and Mind Institute and the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, N6A 5B7 University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - M Rosanova
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "L. Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Fondazione Europea per la Ricerca Biomedica Onlus, Milan 20063, Italy
| | - A O Rossetti
- Neurology Service, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - C Schnakers
- Research Institute, Casa Colina Hospital and Centers for Healthcare, Pomona, CA, USA
| | - J D Sitt
- Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, ICM, Paris, France
| | - N D Schiff
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - M Massimini
- IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi, Milan, Italy; Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "L. Sacco", University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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3
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Jerath R, Beveridge C, Jensen M. On the Hierarchical Organization of Oscillatory Assemblies: Layered Superimposition and a Global Bioelectric Framework. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:426. [PMID: 31866845 PMCID: PMC6904282 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioelectric oscillations occur throughout the nervous system of nearly all animals, revealed to play an important role in various aspects of cognitive activity such as information processing and feature binding. Modern research into this dynamic and intrinsic bioelectric activity of neural cells continues to raise questions regarding their role in consciousness and cognition. In this theoretical article, we assert a novel interpretation of the hierarchical nature of "brain waves" by identifying that the superposition of multiple oscillations varying in frequency corresponds to the superimposing of the contents of consciousness and cognition. In order to describe this isomorphism, we present a layered model of the global functional oscillations of various frequencies which act as a part of a unified metastable continuum described by the Operational Architectonics theory and suggested to be responsible for the emergence of the phenomenal mind. We detail the purposes, functions, and origins of each layer while proposing our main theory that the superimposition of these oscillatory layers mirrors the superimposition of the components of the integrated phenomenal experience as well as of cognition. In contrast to the traditional view that localizations of high and low-frequency activity are spatially distinct, many authors have suggested a hierarchical nature to oscillations. Our theoretical interpretation is founded in four layers which correlate not only in frequency but in evolutionary development. As other authors have done, we explore how these layers correlate to the phenomenology of human experience. Special importance is placed on the most basal layer of slow oscillations in coordinating and grouping all of the other layers. By detailing the isomorphism between the phenomenal and physiologic aspects of how lower frequency layers provide a foundation for higher frequency layers to be organized upon, we provide a further means to elucidate physiological and cognitive mechanisms of mind and for the well-researched outcomes of certain voluntary breathing patterns and meditative practices which modulate the mind and have therapeutic effects for psychiatric and other disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravinder Jerath
- Charitable Medical Healthcare Foundation, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Connor Beveridge
- Charitable Medical Healthcare Foundation, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Michael Jensen
- Department of Medical Illustration, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
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Perez Velazquez JL, Mateos DM, Guevara Erra R. On a Simple General Principle of Brain Organization. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1106. [PMID: 31680839 PMCID: PMC6804438 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A possible framework to characterize nervous system dynamics and its organization in conscious and unconscious states is introduced, derived from a high level perspective on the coordinated activity of brain cell ensembles. Some questions are best addressable in a global framework and here we build on past observations about the structure of configurations of brain networks in conscious and unconscious states and about neurophysiological results. Aiming to bind some results together into some sort of coherence with a central theme, the scenario that emerges underscores the crucial importance of the creation and dissipation of energy gradients in brain cellular ensembles resulting in maximization of the configurations in the functional connectivity among those networks that favor conscious awareness and healthy conditions. These considerations are then applied to indicate approaches that can be used to improve neuropathological syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Diego M. Mateos
- Instituto de Matemática Aplicada del Litoral–CONICET–UNL, CCT CONICET, Santa Fe, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Entre Ríos, Entre Ríos, Argentina
| | - Ramon Guevara Erra
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception, CNRS and Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
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Arsiwalla XD, Verschure P. Measuring the Complexity of Consciousness. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:424. [PMID: 29997472 PMCID: PMC6030381 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The grand quest for a scientific understanding of consciousness has given rise to many new theoretical and empirical paradigms for investigating the phenomenology of consciousness as well as clinical disorders associated to it. A major challenge in this field is to formalize computational measures that can reliably quantify global brain states from data. In particular, information-theoretic complexity measures such as integrated information have been proposed as measures of conscious awareness. This suggests a new framework to quantitatively classify states of consciousness. However, it has proven increasingly difficult to apply these complexity measures to realistic brain networks. In part, this is due to high computational costs incurred when implementing these measures on realistically large network dimensions. Nonetheless, complexity measures for quantifying states of consciousness are important for assisting clinical diagnosis and therapy. This article is meant to serve as a lookup table of measures of consciousness, with particular emphasis on clinical applicability. We consider both, principle-based complexity measures as well as empirical measures tested on patients. We address challenges facing these measures with regard to realistic brain networks, and where necessary, suggest possible resolutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xerxes D. Arsiwalla
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paul Verschure
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Barcelona, Spain
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Guevara Erra R, Mateos DM, Wennberg R, Perez Velazquez JL. Statistical mechanics of consciousness: Maximization of information content of network is associated with conscious awareness. Phys Rev E 2016; 94:052402. [PMID: 27967157 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.94.052402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
It is said that complexity lies between order and disorder. In the case of brain activity and physiology in general, complexity issues are being considered with increased emphasis. We sought to identify features of brain organization that are optimal for sensory processing, and that may guide the emergence of cognition and consciousness, by analyzing neurophysiological recordings in conscious and unconscious states. We find a surprisingly simple result: Normal wakeful states are characterized by the greatest number of possible configurations of interactions between brain networks, representing highest entropy values. Therefore, the information content is larger in the network associated to conscious states, suggesting that consciousness could be the result of an optimization of information processing. These findings help to guide in a more formal sense inquiry into how consciousness arises from the organization of matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Guevara Erra
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception, CNRS and Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75006, France
| | - D M Mateos
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Programme, Division of Neurology, Hospital for Sick Children, Institute of Medical Science and Department of Paediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto M5G1X8, Canada
| | - R Wennberg
- Krembil Neuroscience Centre, Toronto Western Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto M5G1X8, Canada
| | - J L Perez Velazquez
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Programme, Division of Neurology, Hospital for Sick Children, Institute of Medical Science and Department of Paediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto M5G1X8, Canada
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Bagnato S, Boccagni C, Prestandrea C, Fingelkurts AA, Fingelkurts AA, Galardi G. Changes in Standard Electroencephalograms Parallel Consciousness Improvements in Patients With Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2016; 98:665-672. [PMID: 27794486 DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2016.09.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify changes in the standard electroencephalograms (EEGs) of patients with unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) who did or did not recover consciousness 6 months after admission to a rehabilitation department. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. SETTING Unit for severe acquired brain injuries. PARTICIPANTS Consecutive patients with UWS (N=28). INTERVENTIONS Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES EEG amplitude (reduced or normal), dominant frequency (alpha, theta, or delta), and reactivity (absent or present) were scored at admission and 6 months later. The cumulative Amplitude-Frequency-Reactivity score was evaluated. Clinical assessments were made using the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised. RESULTS Sixteen (57.1%) of the 28 patients with UWS recovered consciousness after 6 months, while 12 patients (42.9%) did not recover consciousness. EEG improvements occurred in 14 patients with consciousness recovery (87.5%) and 2 patients without consciousness recovery (16.7%) only. Improvements in EEG dominant frequency (from the theta to the alpha band or from the delta to the theta band), reappearance of EEG reactivity, and Amplitude-Frequency-Reactivity score increase (P<.01) differentiated patients with consciousness improvement from those without consciousness improvement. Six months after admission for rehabilitation, patients with EEG improvements showed higher Coma Recovery Scale-Revised scores than did those without EEG changes (P<.01). CONCLUSIONS Most patients who emerge from UWS demonstrate improvement in basic EEG characteristics over time. EEG changes in patients with UWS may aid in the timely recognition of patients transitioning into a minimally conscious state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Bagnato
- Unit of Neurophysiology and Unit for Severe Acquired Brain Injuries, Rehabilitation Department, Giuseppe Giglio Foundation, Cefalù (PA), Italy.
| | - Cristina Boccagni
- Unit of Neurophysiology and Unit for Severe Acquired Brain Injuries, Rehabilitation Department, Giuseppe Giglio Foundation, Cefalù (PA), Italy
| | - Caterina Prestandrea
- Unit of Neurophysiology and Unit for Severe Acquired Brain Injuries, Rehabilitation Department, Giuseppe Giglio Foundation, Cefalù (PA), Italy
| | | | | | - Giuseppe Galardi
- Unit of Neurophysiology and Unit for Severe Acquired Brain Injuries, Rehabilitation Department, Giuseppe Giglio Foundation, Cefalù (PA), Italy
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Fingelkurts AA, Fingelkurts AA, Bagnato S, Boccagni C, Galardi G. Long-Term (Six Years) Clinical Outcome Discrimination of Patients in the Vegetative State Could be Achieved Based on the Operational Architectonics EEG Analysis: A Pilot Feasibility Study. Open Neuroimag J 2016; 10:69-79. [PMID: 27347266 PMCID: PMC4894941 DOI: 10.2174/1874440001610010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings are increasingly used to evaluate patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) or assess their prognosis outcome in the short-term perspective. However, there is a lack of information concerning the effectiveness of EEG in classifying long-term (many years) outcome in chronic DOC patients. Here we tested whether EEG operational architectonics parameters (geared towards consciousness phenomenon detection rather than neurophysiological processes) could be useful for distinguishing a very long-term (6 years) clinical outcome of DOC patients whose EEGs were registered within 3 months post-injury. The obtained results suggest that EEG recorded at third month after sustaining brain damage, may contain useful information on the long-term outcome of patients in vegetative state: it could discriminate patients who remain in a persistent vegetative state from patients who reach a minimally conscious state or even recover a full consciousness in a long-term perspective (6 years) post-injury. These findings, if confirmed in further studies, may be pivotal for long-term planning of clinical care, rehabilitative programs, medical-legal decisions concerning the patients, and policy makers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sergio Bagnato
- Neurorehabilitation Unit, Rehabilitation Department, Fondazione Istituto "San Raffaele - G. Giglio", Cefalù (PA), Italy; Neurophysiology Unit, Rehabilitation Department, Fondazione Istituto "San Raffaele - G. Giglio", Cefalù (PA), Italy
| | - Cristina Boccagni
- Neurorehabilitation Unit, Rehabilitation Department, Fondazione Istituto "San Raffaele - G. Giglio", Cefalù (PA), Italy; Neurophysiology Unit, Rehabilitation Department, Fondazione Istituto "San Raffaele - G. Giglio", Cefalù (PA), Italy
| | - Giuseppe Galardi
- Neurorehabilitation Unit, Rehabilitation Department, Fondazione Istituto "San Raffaele - G. Giglio", Cefalù (PA), Italy; Neurophysiology Unit, Rehabilitation Department, Fondazione Istituto "San Raffaele - G. Giglio", Cefalù (PA), Italy
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Vogl J, Heine AM, Steinhoff N, Weiss K, Tucek G. Neuroscientific and neuroanthropological perspectives in music therapy research and practice with patients with disorders of consciousness. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:273. [PMID: 26300720 PMCID: PMC4523786 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A growing understanding of music therapy with patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) has developed from observing behavioral changes and using these to gain new ways of experiencing this research environment and setting. Neuroscience provides further insight into the effects of music therapy; however, various studies with similar protocols show different results. The neuroanthropological approach is informed by anthropological and philosophical frameworks. It puts emphasis on a research with and not just on human beings concerning the subject/object question within a research process. It examines relational aspects and outcomes in the context of working in an interdisciplinary team. This allows a broader view of music therapy in a reflective process and leads to a careful interpretation of behavioral reactions and imaging results. This article discusses the importance of the neuroanthropological perspective on our way of obtaining knowledge and its influence on therapeutic practice. It is important to consider how knowledge is generated as it influences the results. Data from two cases will be presented to illustrate the neuroanthropological approach by comparing quantitative PET data with qualitative results of video analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Vogl
- Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology, University of Vienna Vienna, Austria
| | - Astrid M Heine
- Department of Music Therapy, IMC University of Applied Sciences Krems, Austria
| | - Nikolaus Steinhoff
- OptimaMed Neurological Rehabilitation Kittsee, Austria ; Department of Neurology, Regional Hospital Hochegg Grimmenstein, Austria
| | - Konrad Weiss
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Regional Hospital Wiener Neustadt Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Gerhard Tucek
- Department of Music Therapy, IMC University of Applied Sciences Krems, Austria
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Blume C, Del Giudice R, Wislowska M, Lechinger J, Schabus M. Across the consciousness continuum-from unresponsive wakefulness to sleep. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9:105. [PMID: 25805982 PMCID: PMC4354375 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in the development of new paradigms as well as in neuroimaging techniques nowadays enable us to make inferences about the level of consciousness patients with disorders of consciousness (DOC) retain. They, moreover, allow to predict their probable development. Today, we know that certain brain responses (e.g., event-related potentials or oscillatory changes) to stimulation, circadian rhythmicity, the presence or absence of sleep patterns as well as measures of resting state brain activity can serve the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation process. Still, the paradigms we are using nowadays do not allow to disentangle VS/UWS and minimally conscious state (MCS) patients with the desired reliability and validity. Furthermore, even rather well-established methods have, unfortunately, not found their way into clinical routine yet. We here review current literature as well as recent findings from our group and discuss how neuroimaging methods (fMRI, PET) and particularly electroencephalography (EEG) can be used to investigate cognition in DOC or even to assess the degree of residual awareness. We, moreover, propose that circadian rhythmicity and sleep in brain-injured patients are promising fields of research in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Blume
- Laboratory for Sleep, Cognition and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria ; Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Salzburg (CCNS), University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Renata Del Giudice
- Laboratory for Sleep, Cognition and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria ; Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Salzburg (CCNS), University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Malgorzata Wislowska
- Laboratory for Sleep, Cognition and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Julia Lechinger
- Laboratory for Sleep, Cognition and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria ; Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Salzburg (CCNS), University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
| | - Manuel Schabus
- Laboratory for Sleep, Cognition and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria ; Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Salzburg (CCNS), University of Salzburg Salzburg, Austria
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