Visualizing risky situations induces a stronger neural response in brain areas associated with mental imagery and emotions than visualizing non-risky situations

Reward Circuit Local Field Potential Modulations Precede Risk Taking

Risk taking behavior is a symptom of multiple neuropsychiatric disorders and often lacks effective treatments. Reward circuitry regions including the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, insula, and anterior cingulate have been implicated in risk-taking by neuroimaging studies. Electrophysiological activity associated with risk taking in these regions is not well understood in humans. Further characterizing the neural signalling that underlies risk-taking may provide therapeutic insight into disorders associated with risk-taking. Eleven patients with pharmacoresistant epilepsy who underwent stereotactic electroencephalography with electrodes in the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, insula, and/or anterior cingulate participated. Patients participated in a gambling task where they wagered on a visible playing card being higher than a hidden card, betting $5 or $20 on this outcome, while local field potentials were recorded from implanted electrodes. We used cluster-based permutation testing to identify reward prediction error signals by comparing oscillatory power following unexpected and expected rewards. We also used cluster-based permutation testing to compare power preceding high and low bets in high-risk (<50% chance of winning) trials and two-way ANOVA with bet and risk level to identify signals associated with risky, risk averse, and optimized decisions. We used linear mixed effects models to evaluate the relationship between reward prediction error and risky decision signals across trials, and a linear regression model for associations between risky decision signal power and Barratt Impulsiveness Scale scores for each patient. Reward prediction error signals were identified in the amygdala (p=0.0066), anterior cingulate (p=0.0092), and orbitofrontal cortex (p=6.0E-4, p=4.0E-4). Risky decisions were predicted by increased oscillatory power in high-gamma frequency range during card presentation in the orbitofrontal cortex (p=0.0022), and by increased power following bet cue presentation across the theta-to-beta range in the orbitofrontal cortex ( p =0.0022), high-gamma in the anterior cingulate ( p =0.0004), and high-gamma in the insula ( p =0.0014). Risk averse decisions were predicted by decreased orbitofrontal cortex gamma power ( p =2.0E-4). Optimized decisions that maximized earnings were preceded by decreases within the theta to beta range in orbitofrontal cortex ( p =2.0E-4), broad frequencies in amygdala ( p =2.0E-4), and theta to low-gamma in insula ( p =4.0E-4). Insula risky decision power was associated with orbitofrontal cortex high-gamma reward prediction error signal ( p =0.0048) and with patient impulsivity ( p =0.00478). Our findings identify and help characterize reward circuitry activity predictive of risk-taking in humans. These findings may serve as potential biomarkers to inform the development of novel treatment strategies such as closed loop neuromodulation for disorders of risk taking.

Extensive functional connectivity between brain areas implicated in mental imagery production and phobic fear during both emotional and neutral mental imagery

Mental imagery is used by most people in their day-to-day cognition, for example, in planning, daydreaming, or remembering. Importantly, mental imagery has a powerful influence on emotion and is critically involved in many mental disorders. Thus, understanding the link between mental imagery and emotion is of clinical interest. For example, exposure therapy can be successfully conducted using mental imagery of fear-provoking stimuli, i.e., imaginal exposure. In this vein, accumulating evidence shows that mental imagery of a fearful stimulus produces a similar physiological and neural response as actual perception of the stimulus. Alas, knowledge of the neural processes underlying the link between mental imagery and emotion is limited. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data from a previous study on imaginal exposure (N = 30) was used to examine the functional connectivity during the production of phobic and neutral mental imagery. Regions of interest were selected from meta-analyses on brain regions consistently recruited during mental imagery production and phobic fear, respectively. Results showed that these regions were positively correlated during both phobic and neutral mental imagery production. Very few differences in functional connectivity between phobic and neutral imagery were found. Specifically, weaker functional connectivity between the supplemental motor area and a region including parts of the left insula and inferior frontal gyrus was observed during phobic (vs neutral) imagery. In conclusion, our findings suggest that brain regions previously implicated in mental imagery production and phobic fear are highly interconnected during the production of both phobic and neutral imagery.

Impulsivity and sensitivity to reward as mediating factors of the negative relationship between emotional intelligence and health-related risk-taking: evidence from a sample of university students

BACKGROUND

Better abilities in emotional intelligence (EI) have been linked to a decreased tendency to engage in health-related risk behaviour. However, the processes underlying this relationship are still unclear. The aim of this research was to examine the role of impulsivity and sensitivity to reward as mediating factors in the relationship between EI and health risk-taking.

METHODS

Two hundred and fifty participants (Mage = 23.60, age range = 18-59; SD = 6.67; 71.60% women) were assessed on ability EI levels, risk-taking in health contexts, impulsivity, and sensitivity to reward. Unlike previous studies in the literature, we employed a performance-based ability measure to assess EI (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT).

RESULTS

The results confirmed the negative relationship between EI and health risk-taking and revealed the existence of a significant negative indirect effect of EI on health-risk taking through various dimensions of impulsivity and sensitivity to reward. EI abilities -particularly the ability to manage emotions- were associated with lower levels of impulsivity under positive and negative emotional states, a better management of the tendency towards sensation seeking, and a decreased emotional reactivity to rewards.

CONCLUSIONS

The present research provides a better understanding of the processes underlying the negative relationship between EI and health risk-taking. Our findings suggest that having higher levels of EI abilities would allow for a more objective evaluation of risk scenarios and a more appropriate and safer decision making through its influence on the levels of impulsivity and emotional reactivity to rewards. Practical implications, limitations, and future lines of research are discussed.