Oxytocin Modulates the Cognitive Appraisal of the Own and Others Close Intimate Relationships

A narrative review of mechanisms linking romantic relationship experiences to sleep quality

Although a significant body of research has revealed associations between romantic relationship experiences and sleep quality, there has not been clarity regarding the mechanisms underlying such associations. Toward this end, we review the existing studies that have tested mechanisms linking romantic relationship experiences to sleep quality. Guided by both theory and existing research, we organize our review around five key categories of mechanisms that may explain associations between romantic relationship experiences and sleep quality: emotional/affective responses, self-perceptions, social perceptions, self-regulation, and biological functioning. Our review of the literature indicates strong evidence in support of the mediating effects of emotional/affective mechanisms (e.g. emotions and mood states) in explaining associations between various aspects of romantic relationships (e.g. relationship satisfaction, partner conflicts, and attachment orientation) and sleep quality. Although there is ample theoretical support for the other mechanisms proposed, and although all proposed mechanisms have been separately linked to both romantic relationship experiences and sleep quality, few studies have directly tested them, pointing to profitable directions for future research. Understanding underlying mechanisms will enable the development of wise, process-based interventions that target specific mechanisms to improve couple members' sleep quality and romantic relationship functioning.

Neural responses to instructed positive couple interaction: an fMRI study on compliment sharing

Love is probably the most fascinating feeling that a person ever experiences. However, little is known about what is happening in the brains of a romantic couple-the central and most salient relationship during adult age-while they are particularly tender and exchanging loving words with one another. To gain insight into nearly natural couple interaction, we collected data from N = 84 individuals (including N = 43 heterosexual couples) simultaneously in two functional magnetic resonance imaging scanners, while they sent and received compliments, i.e. short messages about what they liked about each other and their relationship. Activation patterns during compliment sharing in the individuals revealed a broad pattern of activated brain areas known to be involved in empathy and reward processing. Notably, the ventral striatum, including parts of the putamen, was activated particularly when selecting messages for the partner. This provides initial evidence that giving a verbal treat to a romantic partner seems to involve neural reward circuitry in the basal ganglia. These results can have important implications for the neurobiological mechanisms protecting and stabilizing romantic relationships, which build a highly relevant aspect of human life and health.

Effects of intranasal oxytocin and positive couple interaction on immune factors in skin wounds

BACKGROUND

Intimate social relationships improve individual health and longevity, an effect which is supposed to be mediated through stress-sensitive endocrine and immune mechanisms in response to positive interaction behavior. On a neuroendocrine level, oxytocin (OT) buffers stress responses, modulates social attachment behavior and has been associated with cytokine expression. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to investigate instructed positive couple interaction, observed behavior, and OT in their effect on immune function.

METHODS

In a 4-group design, 80 healthy couples (N = 160 individuals) received four standard dermal suction blister wounds and were randomized to instructed positive interaction/control and intranasal OT/placebo. Unstimulated cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) were assessed from wound liquid at 40 min, 105 min and 24 hrs after wounding.

RESULTS

Overall, group assignment did not affect friendly or dominant behavior during the interaction sequence. IL-1β and IL-6 levels, however, were moderated by group assignment with lowest levels in women in the positive interaction and OT condition in IL-1 and highest levels in IL-6. TNF-α responses to wounding were not affected from group assignment, however observed friendliness in women was associated with lower TNF-α levels.

DISCUSSION

These findings support the immune-regulating role of friendly behavior in romantic couples. Above this, the data provide the first empirical evidence that an intervention that simultaneously targets neuroendocrine mediators and behavior could affect immune function in a sex specific manner and with potential long-term health relevance.

Monoamine Neurotransmitters Control Basic Emotions and Affect Major Depressive Disorders

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common and complex mental disorder, that adversely impacts an individual’s quality of life, but its diagnosis and treatment are not accurately executed and a symptom-based approach is utilized in most cases, due to the lack of precise knowledge regarding the pathophysiology. So far, the first-line treatments are still based on monoamine neurotransmitters. Even though there is a lot of progress in this field, the mechanisms seem to get more and more confusing, and the treatment is also getting more and more controversial. In this study, we try to review the broad advances of monoamine neurotransmitters in the field of MDD, and update its effects in many advanced neuroscience studies. We still propose the monoamine hypothesis but paid special attention to their effects on the new pathways for MDD, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, neurotrophins, and neurogenesis, especially in the glial cells, which have recently been found to play an important role in many neurodegenerative disorders, including MDD. In addition, we will extend the monoamine hypothesis to basic emotions; as suggested in our previous reports, the three monoamine neurotransmitters play different roles in emotions: dopamine—joy, norepinephrine—fear (anger), serotonins—disgust (sadness). Above all, this paper tries to give a full picture of the relationship between the MDD and the monoamine neurotransmitters such as DA, NE, and 5-HT, as well as their contributions to the Three Primary Color Model of Basic Emotions (joy, fear, and disgust). This is done by explaining the contribution of the monoamine from many sides for MDD, such the digestive tract, astrocytes, microglial, and others, and very briefly addressing the potential of monoamine neurotransmitters as a therapeutic approach for MDD patients and also the reasons for its limited clinical efficacy, side effects, and delayed onset of action. We hope this review might offer new pharmacological management of MDD.

The Effect of Intranasal Oxytocin on the Association Between Couple Interaction and Sleep: A Placebo-Controlled Study

OBJECTIVE

Although most people in romantic relationships cosleep, biosocial modulators of sleep quality have only recently come into focus. Oxytocin (OT) might be one such modulator, as it had been shown to increase social attachment and safety. We investigated the association between everyday life couple interaction and sleep quality, as well as the effects of OT on this association.

METHODS

Eighty heterosexual couples ( N = 160 individuals, mean [standard deviation] age = 28 [5] years) were randomized to self-administer a) 32 international units of intranasal OT or b) placebo during 5 consecutive days. Each morning, they reported on sleep quality, and on subjective feelings of closeness and valence of couple interaction at a maximum of four times a day. Data were analyzed using hierarchical linear models.

RESULTS

Subjective closeness ( B = 0.43, t (73) = 3.80, p < .001) and valence (negative - positive) of couple interaction ( B = 0.50, t (73) = 3.91, p < .001) were positively associated with sleep quality. Persons with OT reported higher levels of sleep quality than those without ( B = 0.47, t (74) = 2.32, p = .023). The association between closeness and sleep quality was stronger with OT than without (OT by closeness: B = 0.31, t (72) = 2.29, p = .025; OT by valence of interaction: B = 0.27, t (72) = 1.77, p = .081). Whereas the effect of couple interaction on sleep quality was strong in men, the OT effects were especially pronounced in women.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that enhancing closeness and positive couple interaction in cosleeping partners might be a way to improve sleep quality. The moderating effects of OT and sex on the association between couple interaction and sleep quality can have important implications for sleep therapy.Trial Registration: The study was preregistered at ClinicalTrials.gov ("Oxytocin, Couple Interaction, and Wound Healing" study, identifier NCT01594775). The present analyses were not preregistered.

Intranasal oxytocin decreases self-oriented learning

RATIONALE

Oxytocin has been found to play an important role in human social cognition and social interaction. Over the last two decades, surge studies have been conducted to investigate how oxytocin impacts other-oriented processes, such as trust and generosity (Zak et al. in PLoS ONE 2(11):e1128, 2007); however, the examination of the effect of oxytocin on self-related processes was relatively inadequate. Appropriate and efficient social interactions require both self- and other-related information processing. Recent studies have found that intranasal oxytocin (IN-OT) influences the self-related process, although the results have been mixed. The computational process underlying the effects of IN-OT on self-processing remains unknown.

OBJECTIVES

We aim to investigate the effect of IN-OT on self-oriented learning across different contexts (self-other independent vs. self-other dependent) and uncover the process by which IN-OT affects dynamic behavior changes.

METHODS

We performed two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies and used reinforcement learning theory to integrate action and related feedback for participants' behaviors.

RESULTS

In study 1, IN-OT decreased self-oriented reward learning when self-oriented learning and prosocial (other-oriented) learning were assessed separately. These effects were partially due to the OT-related increase in choice variability during self-oriented learning. In study 2, IN-OT also decreased learning performance during self-oriented reward learning when self-related and other-related rewards were present together. These effects occurred at an early stage of the learning process and could be moderated by the participants' social value orientation. Our findings show that OT attenuates the process of self-oriented learning and provides an underlying computational process.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings shed new light on the dynamics of IN-OT's effects on human self-oriented learning processes. For future studies on OT effects on self-oriented learning, individual factors such as social value orientation should be taken into consideration in research development and analysis.

Sickness and the Social Brain: Love in the Time of COVID

As a highly social species, inclusion in social networks and the presence of strong social bonds are critical to our health and well-being. Indeed, impaired social functioning is a component of numerous neuropsychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, and substance use disorder. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, our social networks are at risk of fracture and many are vulnerable to the negative consequences of social isolation. Importantly, infection itself leads to changes in social behavior as a component of "sickness behavior." Furthermore, as in the case of COVID-19, males and females often differ in their immunological response to infection, and, therefore, in their susceptibility to negative outcomes. In this review, we discuss the many ways in which infection changes social behavior-sometimes to the benefit of the host, and in some instances for the sake of the pathogen-in species ranging from eusocial insects to humans. We also explore the neuroimmune mechanisms by which these changes in social behavior occur. Finally, we touch upon the ways in which the social environment (group living, social isolation, etc.) shapes the immune system and its ability to respond to challenge. Throughout we emphasize how males and females differ in their response to immune activation, both behaviorally and physiologically.

The OXTR polymorphisms are not associated with attachment dimensions: A three-approach study

Inspired by the roles of oxytocin in social behaviors, scientists have devoted considerable efforts to examine the association between the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and human attachment, a personality of seek and receiving comfort from intimate figures. However, there are still a lot of controversies on the association. To clarify the relationship, this research integrated three studies: (1) A cross-sectional study indicated that the OXTR polymorphisms (i.e., rs53576 and rs2254298) were not significantly associated with attachment dimensions in a college student sample (N = 1193); (2) A three-wave study showed that the polymorphisms were not associated with the individual differences and changes of attachment dimensions in a freshmen sample (N = 657); and (3) Meta-analysis indicated that attachment dimensions were not associated with the polymorphisms of rs53576 (Anxiety: 14 samples, N = 5053; Avoidance: ten samples, N = 4273) and rs2254298 (Anxiety: ten samples, N = 3670; Avoidance: ten samples, N = 3698). Taken together, these findings provide strong evidence that the OXTR polymorphisms are not related to attachment dimensions.

Oxytocin and Three Kinds of Dangerous Behaviors in a Romantic Relationship: Playing, Suffering, and Stalking

Romantic relationships are an essential element of healthy living. Although difficulties in love are encountered often, it seems that three kinds of behaviors in a romantic relationship are more susceptible to physical or psychiatric disorders: playing (sexually transmitted disease), suffering (major depressive disorder or suicide), and stalking (violence or homicide). Oxytocin plays an important role in pair-bonding. Elevated plasma oxytocin concentrations have been observed in new lovers when compared with singles. It is hypothesized that those who display these dangerous behaviors in a romantic relationship might possess specific oxytocin receptor gene aberrancy and the resultant deviant pair-bonding pattern is likely to recur in successive relationships. It is postulated that a blunted oxytocin surge might be observed in playing, whereas exaggerated oxytocin surge might be observed in suffering and stalking. The distinction between suffering and stalking might stem from the difference in their aggression tendencies. Those who suffer displays aggression toward self, while those who stalk displays aggression toward others. The exaggerated oxytocin concentrations in people who suffer and people who stalk might not be suppressed by the discouraging attitudes of their partners and might be maintained by rumination. Considering the whole-body influence of oxytocin, intranasal oxytocin application or gene therapy should be used exclusively for those who display these dangerous behaviors and not for the general population. Future research is warranted to confirm this hypothesis with analysis of modifiers such as gender.