Diurnal Variation Induces Neurobehavioral and Neuropathological Differences in a Rat Model of Traumatic Brain Injury

Time of the Day of Traumatic Brain Injury has Minimal Effects on Behavioral and Histological Outcomes in Mice of Both Sexes

Transcription of > 50% of the mammalian coding genes follows circadian rhythm in an organ-specific manner. Recent findings highlighted the influence of time of the day in the progression of various neurological diseases and therapies. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of time of occurrence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) on behavioral and neuropathological outcomes in mice of both sexes. Following a controlled cortical impact injury induced between Zeitgeber time (ZT)1-4 or ZT13-16, behavioral deficits and brain damage were evaluated. There were no significant differences in post-TBI motor function between groups ZT1-4 and ZT13-16 in either male or female mice compared with the sex-matched naïve control. TBI-induced anxiety-like behavior was significantly higher in the female ZT13-16 cohort compared to the naïve cohort; but, no difference was observed between injured groups in both sexes. Similarly, spatial learning and memory were not significantly different between the ZT1-4 and ZT13-16 groups in both sexes. Post-TBI cortical lesion volume was also not significantly different between ZT1-4 and ZT-13-16 groups in both sexes. The present study observed no significant effects of occurrence time on TBI-induced brain damage or behavioral deficits in male and female mice.

The Traumatic Inoculation Process Affects TSPO Radioligand Uptake in Experimental Orthotopic Glioblastoma

BACKGROUND

The translocator protein (TSPO) has been proven to have great potential as a target for the positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of glioblastoma. However, there is an ongoing debate about the potential various sources of the TSPO PET signal. This work investigates the impact of the inoculation-driven immune response on the PET signal in experimental orthotopic glioblastoma.

METHODS

Serial [18F]GE-180 and O-(2-[18F]fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine ([18F]FET) PET scans were performed at day 7/8 and day 14/15 after the inoculation of GL261 mouse glioblastoma cells (n = 24) or saline (sham, n = 6) into the right striatum of immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice. An additional n = 25 sham mice underwent [18F]GE-180 PET and/or autoradiography (ARG) at days 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 50 and 90 in order to monitor potential reactive processes that were solely related to the inoculation procedure. In vivo imaging results were directly compared to tissue-based analyses including ARG and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

We found that the inoculation process represents an immunogenic event, which significantly contributes to TSPO radioligand uptake. [18F]GE-180 uptake in GL261-bearing mice surpassed [18F]FET uptake both in the extent and the intensity, e.g., mean target-to-background ratio (TBRmean) in PET at day 7/8: 1.22 for [18F]GE-180 vs. 1.04 for [18F]FET, p < 0.001. Sham mice showed increased [18F]GE-180 uptake at the inoculation channel, which, however, continuously decreased over time (e.g., TBRmean in PET: 1.20 at day 7 vs. 1.09 at day 35, p = 0.04). At the inoculation channel, the percentage of TSPO/IBA1 co-staining decreased, whereas TSPO/GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) co-staining increased over time (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

We identify the inoculation-driven immune response to be a relevant contributor to the PET signal and add a new aspect to consider for planning PET imaging studies in orthotopic glioblastoma models.

The effect of thioredoxin-1 in a rat model of traumatic brain injury depending on diurnal variation

INTRODUCTION

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a public health concern with limited treatment options because it causes a cascade of side effects that are the leading cause of hospital death. Thioredoxin is an enzyme with neuroprotective properties such as antioxidant, antiapoptotic, immune response modulator, and neurogenic, among others; it has been considered a therapeutic target for treating many disorders.

METHODS

The controlled cortical impact (CCI) model was used to assess the effect of recombinant human thioredoxin 1 (rhTrx1) (1 μg/2 μL, intracortical) on rats subjected to TBI at two different times of the light-dark cycle (01:00 and 13:00 h). We analyzed the food intake, body weight loss, motor coordination, pain perception, and histology in specific hippocampus (CA1, CA2, CA3, and Dental Gyrus) and striatum (caudate-putamen) areas.

RESULTS

Body weight loss, reduced food intake, spontaneous pain, motor impairment, and neuronal damage in specific hippocampus and striatum regions are more evident in rats subjected to TBI in the light phase than in the dark phase of the cycle and in groups that did not receive rhTrx1 or minocycline (as positive control). Three days after TBI, there is a recovery in body weight, food intake, motor impairment, and pain, which is more pronounced in the rats subjected to TBI at the dark phase of the cycle and those that received rhTrx1 or minocycline.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowing the time of day a TBI occurs in connection to the neuroprotective mechanisms of the immune response in diurnal variation and the usage of the Trx1 protein might have a beneficial therapeutic impact in promoting quick recovery after a TBI.

A model of traumatic brain injury in rats is influenced by neuroprotection of diurnal variation which improves motor behavior and histopathology in white matter myelin

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents a significant public health concern and has been associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality. TBI generates two types of brain damage: primary and secondary. Secondary damage originates a series of pathophysiological processes, which include metabolic crisis, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation, which have deleterious consequences for neuronal function. However, neuroprotective mechanisms are also activated. The balance among these tissue responses, and its variations throughout the day determines the fate of the damage tissue. We have demonstrated less behavioral and morphological damage when a rat model of TBI was induced during the light hours of the day. Moreover, here we show that rats subjected to TBI in the dark lost less body weight than those subjected to TBI in the light, despite no change in food intake. Besides, the rats subjected to TBI in the dark had better performance in the beam walking test and presented less histological damage in the corpus callosum and the cingulum bundle, as shown by the Klüver-Barrera staining. Our results suggest that the time of day when the injury occurs is important. Thus, this data should be used to evaluate the pathophysiological processes of TBI events and develop better therapies.

Ex vivo comparative investigation of suprachiasmatic nucleus excitotoxic resiliency

Background: Glutamate signaling in the brain is regulated by release, reuptake, and receptor responsiveness. In diseased conditions, glutamate signaling can exceed normal regulatory processes, giving rise to a condition called excitotoxicity. Although regional differences in the excitotoxic effects of glutamate in the brain have been reported, the extent and characteristics of these potential differences are not clear. Here we compared the excitotoxic resiliency of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), anterior hypothalamus (AH) and cortex. Methods: We treated acute brain slices containing either the SCN and AH or the cortex from adult male mice at different times across the diurnal cycle with varying concentrations of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), NMDA+ α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) or control medium. The extent of cell damage was assessed using propidium iodide (PI), a cell death marker. Results: The results indicate that all three brain regions exhibited increasing cell damage/death when treated with increasing concentrations of NMDA. However, higher concentrations of NMDA were needed to significantly increase cell damage in the SCN compared to the cortex and AH. All three brain regions also exhibited greater cell death/damage when treated in the nighttime compared to the daytime, although the SCN exhibited increased cell death during a more restricted time interval compared to the AH and cortex. Conclusions: Together, these data confirm previous studies showing excitotoxic resiliency in the SCN, while extending them in two ways. First, we demonstrate a dose-dependency in excitotoxic susceptibility that differentiates the SCN from the surrounding AH and the cortex using a brain slice preparation. Second, we demonstrate a diurnal rhythm in excitotoxic susceptibility with a broadly similar phase across all three brain regions. These data increase our understanding of the extent and nature of the SCN excitotoxic resiliency, which will inform future studies on the cellular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon.

Circadian rhythms and glial cells of the central nervous system

Glial cells are the most abundant cells in the central nervous system and play crucial roles in neural development, homeostasis, immunity, and conductivity. Over the past few decades, glial cell activity in mammals has been linked to circadian rhythms, the 24-h chronobiological clocks that regulate many physiological processes. Indeed, glial cells rhythmically express clock genes that cell-autonomously regulate glial function. In addition, recent findings in rodents have revealed that disruption of the glial molecular clock could impact the entire organism. In this review, we discuss the impact of circadian rhythms on the function of the three major glial cell types - astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes - across different locations within the central nervous system. We also review recent evidence uncovering the impact of glial cells on the body's circadian rhythm. Together, this sheds new light on the involvement of glial clock machinery in various diseases.

Circadian modulation of microglial physiological processes and immune responses

Microglia is considered the central nervous system (CNS) resident macrophages that establish an innate immune response against pathogens and toxins. However, the recent studies have shown that microglial gene and protein expression follows a circadian pattern; several immune activation markers and clock genes are expressed rhythmically without the need for an immune stimulus. Furthermore, microglia responds to an immune challenge with different magnitudes depending on the time of the day. This review examines the circadian control of microglia function and the possible physiological implications. For example, we discuss that synaptic prune is performed in the cortex at a certain moment of the day. We also consider the implications of daily microglial function for maintaining biological rhythms like general activity, body temperature, and food intake. We conclude that the developmental stage, brain region, and pathological state are not the only factors to consider for the evaluation of microglial functions; instead, emerging evidence indicates that circadian time as an essential aspect for a better understanding of the role of microglia in CNS physiology.

Octreotide-mediated neurofunctional recovery in rats following traumatic brain injury. Role of H2S, Nrf2 and TNF-α

Purpose:

To explore the role and mechanisms of octreotide in neurofunctional recovery in the traumatic brain injury (TBI) model.

Methods:

Rats were subjected to midline incision followed by TBI in the prefrontal cortex region. After 72 hours, the behavioural and neurological deficits tests were performed, which included memory testing on Morris water maze for 5 days. Octreotide (15 and 30 mg/kg i.p.) was administered 30 minutes before subjecting to TBI, and its administration was continued for three days.

Results:

In TBI-subjected rats, administration of octreotide restored on day 4 escape latency time (ELT) and increased the time spent in the target quadrant (TSTQ) on day 5, suggesting the improvement in learning and memory. It also increased the expression of H₂S, Nrf2, and cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE) in the prefrontal cortex, without any significant effect on cystathionine-β-synthase. Octreotide also decreased the TNF-α levels and neurological severity score. However, co-administration of CSE inhibitor (D,L-propargylglycine) abolished octreotide-mediated neurofunctional recovery, decreased the levels of H₂S and Nrf2 and increased the levels of TNF-α.

Conclusions:

Octreotide improved the neurological functions in TBI-subjected rats, which may be due to up-regulation of H₂S biosynthetic enzyme (CSE), levels of H₂S and Nrf2 and down-regulation of neuroinflammation.