High-precision neural stimulation by a highly efficient candle soot fiber optoacoustic emitter

High-Precision Photoacoustic Neural Modulation Uses a Non-Thermal Mechanism

Neuromodulation is a powerful tool for fundamental studies in neuroscience and potential treatments of neurological disorders. Both photoacoustic (PA) and photothermal (PT) effects are harnessed for non-genetic high-precision neural stimulation. Using a fiber-based device excitable by a nanosecond pulsed laser and a continuous wave laser for PA and PT stimulation, respectively, PA and PT neuromodulation is systematically investigated at the single neuron level. These results show that to achieve the same level of neuron activation recorded by Ca2+ imaging, the laser energy needed for PA stimulation is 1/40 of that needed for PT stimulation. The threshold energy for PA stimulation is found to be further reduced in neurons overexpressing mechano-sensitive channels, indicating direct involvement of mechano-sensitive channels in PA stimulation. Electrophysiology study of single neurons upon PA and PT stimulation is performed by patch clamp recordings. Electrophysiological features induced by PA are distinct from those by PT, confirming that PA and PT stimulation operate through different mechanisms. These insights offer a foundation for the rational design of more efficient and safer non-genetic neural modulation approaches.

Photoacoustic: A Versatile Nongenetic Method for High-Precision Neuromodulation

High-precision neuromodulation plays a pivotal role in elucidating fundamental principles of neuroscience and treating specific neurological disorders. Optical neuromodulation, enabled by spatial resolution defined by the diffraction limit at the submicrometer scale, is a general strategy to achieve such precision. Optogenetics offers single-neuron spatial resolution with cellular specificity, whereas the requirement of genetic transfection hinders its clinical application. Direct photothermal modulation, an alternative nongenetic optical approach, often associates a large temperature increase with the risk of thermal damage to surrounding tissues.Photoacoustic (also called optoacoustic) neural stimulation is an emerging technology for neural stimulation with the following key features demonstrated. First, the photoacoustic approach demonstrated high efficacy without the need for genetic modification. The generated pulsed ultrasound upon ns laser pulses with energy ranging from a few μJ to tens of μJ is sufficient to activate wild-type neurons. Second, the photoacoustic approach provides sub-100-μm spatial precision. It overcomes the fundamental wave diffraction limit of ultrasound by harnessing the localized ultrasound field generated through light absorption. A spatial precision of 400 μm has been achieved in rodent brains using a fiber-based photoacoustic emitter. Single-cell stimulation in neuronal cultures in vitro and in brain slices ex vivo is achieved using tapered fiber-based photoacoustic emitters. This precision is 10 to 100 times better than that for piezo-based low-frequency ultrasound and is essential to pinpoint a specific region or cell population in a living brain. Third, compared to direct photothermal stimulation via temperature increase, photoacoustic stimulation requires 40 times less laser energy dose to evoke neuron activities and is associated with a minimal temperature increase of less than 1 °C, preventing potential thermal damage to neurons. Fourth, photoacoustics is a versatile approach and can be designed in various platforms aiming at specific applications. Our team has shown the design of fiber-based photoacoustic emitters, photoacoustic nanotransducers, soft biocompatible photoacoustic films, and soft photoacoustic lenses. Since they interact with neurons through ultrasound without the need for direct contact, photoacoustic enables noninvasive transcranial and dura-penetrating brain stimulation without compromising high precision.In this Account, we will first review the basic principles of photoacoustic and discuss the key design elements of PA transducers for neural modulation guided by the principle. We will also highlight how these design goals were achieved from a materials chemistry perspective. The design of different PA interfaces, their unique capability, and their applications in neural systems will be reviewed. In the end, we will discuss the remaining challenges and future perspectives for this technology.

Nanoparticle-based optical interfaces for retinal neuromodulation: a review

Degeneration of photoreceptors in the retina is a leading cause of blindness, but commonly leaves the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and/or bipolar cells extant. Consequently, these cells are an attractive target for the invasive electrical implants colloquially known as "bionic eyes." However, after more than two decades of concerted effort, interfaces based on conventional electrical stimulation approaches have delivered limited efficacy, primarily due to the current spread in retinal tissue, which precludes high-acuity vision. The ideal prosthetic solution would be less invasive, provide single-cell resolution and an ability to differentiate between different cell types. Nanoparticle-mediated approaches can address some of these requirements, with particular attention being directed at light-sensitive nanoparticles that can be accessed via the intrinsic optics of the eye. Here we survey the available known nanoparticle-based optical transduction mechanisms that can be exploited for neuromodulation. We review the rapid progress in the field, together with outstanding challenges that must be addressed to translate these techniques to clinical practice. In particular, successful translation will likely require efficient delivery of nanoparticles to stable and precisely defined locations in the retinal tissues. Therefore, we also emphasize the current literature relating to the pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles in the eye. While considerable challenges remain to be overcome, progress to date shows great potential for nanoparticle-based interfaces to revolutionize the field of visual prostheses.

Photoacoustic imaging plus X: a review

Significance

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging (PAI) represents an emerging modality within the realm of biomedical imaging technology. It seamlessly blends the wealth of optical contrast with the remarkable depth of penetration offered by ultrasound. These distinctive features of PAI hold tremendous potential for various applications, including early cancer detection, functional imaging, hybrid imaging, monitoring ablation therapy, and providing guidance during surgical procedures. The synergy between PAI and other cutting-edge technologies not only enhances its capabilities but also propels it toward broader clinical applicability.

Aim

The integration of PAI with advanced technology for PA signal detection, signal processing, image reconstruction, hybrid imaging, and clinical applications has significantly bolstered the capabilities of PAI. This review endeavor contributes to a deeper comprehension of how the synergy between PAI and other advanced technologies can lead to improved applications.

Approach

An examination of the evolving research frontiers in PAI, integrated with other advanced technologies, reveals six key categories named "PAI plus X." These categories encompass a range of topics, including but not limited to PAI plus treatment, PAI plus circuits design, PAI plus accurate positioning system, PAI plus fast scanning systems, PAI plus ultrasound sensors, PAI plus advanced laser sources, PAI plus deep learning, and PAI plus other imaging modalities.

Results

After conducting a comprehensive review of the existing literature and research on PAI integrated with other technologies, various proposals have emerged to advance the development of PAI plus X. These proposals aim to enhance system hardware, improve imaging quality, and address clinical challenges effectively.

Conclusions

The progression of innovative and sophisticated approaches within each category of PAI plus X is positioned to drive significant advancements in both the development of PAI technology and its clinical applications. Furthermore, PAI not only has the potential to integrate with the above-mentioned technologies but also to broaden its applications even further.

Functional material-mediated wireless physical stimulation for neuro-modulation and regeneration

Nerve injuries and neurological diseases remain intractable clinical challenges. Despite the advantages of stem cell therapy in treating neurological disorders, uncontrollable cell fates and loss of cell function in vivo are still challenging. Recently, increasing attention has been given to the roles of external physical signals, such as electricity and ultrasound, in regulating stem cell fate as well as activating or inhibiting neuronal activity, which provides new insights for the treatment of neurological disorders. However, direct physical stimulations in vivo are short in accuracy and safety. Functional materials that can absorb energy from a specific physical field exerted in a wireless way and then release another localized physical signal hold great advantages in mediating noninvasive or minimally invasive accurate indirect physical stimulations to promote the therapeutic effect on neurological disorders. In this review, the mechanism by which various physical signals regulate stem cell fate and neuronal activity is summarized. Based on these concepts, the approaches of using functional materials to mediate indirect wireless physical stimulation for neuro-modulation and regeneration are systematically reviewed. We expect that this review will contribute to developing wireless platforms for neural stimulation as an assistance for the treatment of neurological diseases and injuries.

Multifunctional Fiber-Based Optoacoustic Emitter as a Bidirectional Brain Interface

A bidirectional brain interface with both "write" and "read" functions can be an important tool for fundamental studies and potential clinical treatments for neurological diseases. Herein, a miniaturized multifunctional fiber-based optoacoustic emitter (mFOE) is reported thatintegrates simultaneous optoacoustic stimulation for "write" and electrophysiology recording of neural circuits for "read". Because of the intrinsic ability of neurons to respond to acoustic wave, there is no requirement of the viral transfection. The orthogonality between optoacoustic waves and electrical field provides a solution to avoid the interference between electrical stimulation and recording. The stimulation function of the mFOE is first validated in cultured ratcortical neurons using calcium imaging. In vivo application of mFOE for successful simultaneous optoacoustic stimulation and electrical recording of brain activities is confirmed in mouse hippocampus in both acute and chronical applications up to 1 month. Minor brain tissue damage is confirmed after these applications. The capability of simultaneous neural stimulation and recording enabled by mFOE opens up new possibilities for the investigation of neural circuits and brings new insights into the study of ultrasound neurostimulation.