1
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Guo F, Xu P, Zheng D, Zhong X. Generation of two hiPSC lines carrying compound heterozygous RDH12 mutations in a LCA patient. Stem Cell Res 2024; 81:103525. [PMID: 39142122 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2024.103525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Leber's congenital amaurosis (LCA) is a complex inherited retinal dystrophy characterized by severe vision loss and even blindness early in life, caused by more than 38 genes. Variations in RDH12 were found to be responsible for LCA. We successfully generated two induced pluripotent stem cell lines from a patient diagnosed with LCA carrying the RDH12 compound heterozygous mutations c.524C>T (p.Ser175Leu) and c.806C>G (p.Ala269Gly). Both iPSC lines displayed differentiation potential in vitro, exhibited normal karyotype and expressed pluripotency markers. These iPSC lines will act as a tool for studying the pathogenesis and treatment of RDH12-related LCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuying Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Ping Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Dandan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Xiufeng Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China.
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2
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Han JW, Chang HS, Park SC, Yang JY, Kim YJ, Kim JH, Park HS, Jeong H, Lee J, Yoon CK, Yu HG, Woo SJ, Lyu J, Park TK. Early Developmental Characteristics and Features of a Three-Dimensional Retinal Organoid Model of X-Linked Juvenile Retinoschisis. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8203. [PMID: 39125773 PMCID: PMC11311801 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
X-linked juvenile retinoschisis (XLRS) is a hereditary retinal degeneration affecting young males caused by mutations in the retinoschisin (RS1) gene. We generated human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) from XLRS patients and established three-dimensional retinal organoids (ROs) for disease investigation. This disease model recapitulates the characteristics of XLRS, exhibiting defects in RS1 protein production and photoreceptor cell development. XLRS ROs also revealed dysregulation of Na/K-ATPase due to RS1 deficiency and increased ERK signaling pathway activity. Transcriptomic analyses of XLRS ROs showed decreased expression of retinal cells, particularly photoreceptor cells. Furthermore, relevant recovery of the XLRS phenotype was observed when co-cultured with control ROs derived from healthy subject during the early stages of differentiation. In conclusion, our in vitro XLRS RO model presents a valuable tool for elucidating the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying XLRS, offering insights into disease progression. Additionally, this model serves as a robust platform for the development and optimization of targeted therapeutic strategies, potentially improving treatment outcomes for patients with XLRS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Woo Han
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, 170, Jomaru-ro, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea; (J.W.H.); (S.C.P.); (J.H.K.); (H.S.P.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan 31151, Republic of Korea
| | - Hun Soo Chang
- Department of Microbiology, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan 31151, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Interdisciplinary Program in Biomedical Science, Soonchunhyang Graduate School, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea;
| | - Sung Chul Park
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, 170, Jomaru-ro, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea; (J.W.H.); (S.C.P.); (J.H.K.); (H.S.P.)
| | - Jin Young Yang
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy for Retinal Degeneration, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea;
| | - Ye Ji Kim
- Department of Interdisciplinary Program in Biomedical Science, Soonchunhyang Graduate School, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea;
| | - Jin Ha Kim
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, 170, Jomaru-ro, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea; (J.W.H.); (S.C.P.); (J.H.K.); (H.S.P.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan 31151, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Song Park
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, 170, Jomaru-ro, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea; (J.W.H.); (S.C.P.); (J.H.K.); (H.S.P.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan 31151, Republic of Korea
| | - Han Jeong
- Institute of Vision Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Severance Eye Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea;
- Brain Korea 21 Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Junwon Lee
- Institute of Vision Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 06273, Republic of Korea;
| | - Chang Ki Yoon
- Department of Ophthalmology, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hyung Gon Yu
- Retina Center, The Sky Eye Institute, Seoul 06536, Republic of Korea;
| | - Se Joon Woo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seongnam 13620, Republic of Korea;
| | - Jungmook Lyu
- Department of Medical Science, Konyang University, Daejun 32992, Republic of Korea;
| | - Tae Kwann Park
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, 170, Jomaru-ro, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea; (J.W.H.); (S.C.P.); (J.H.K.); (H.S.P.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan 31151, Republic of Korea
- Department of Interdisciplinary Program in Biomedical Science, Soonchunhyang Graduate School, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea;
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapy for Retinal Degeneration, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Bucheon 14584, Republic of Korea;
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3
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Seah I, Goh D, Banerjee A, Su X. Modeling inherited retinal diseases using human induced pluripotent stem cell derived photoreceptor cells and retinal pigment epithelial cells. Front Med (Lausanne) 2024; 11:1328474. [PMID: 39011458 PMCID: PMC11246861 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2024.1328474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology, there have been many attempts to create cellular models of inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) for investigation of pathogenic processes to facilitate target discovery and validation activities. Consistency remains key in determining the utility of these findings. Despite the importance of consistency, quality control metrics are still not widely used. In this review, a toolkit for harnessing iPSC technology to generate photoreceptor, retinal pigment epithelial cell, and organoid disease models is provided. Considerations while developing iPSC-derived IRD models such as iPSC origin, reprogramming methods, quality control metrics, control strategies, and differentiation protocols are discussed. Various iPSC IRD models are dissected and the scientific hurdles of iPSC-based disease modeling are discussed to provide an overview of current methods and future directions in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Seah
- Translational Retinal Research Laboratory, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Debbie Goh
- Department of Ophthalmology, National University Hospital (NUH), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Animesh Banerjee
- Translational Retinal Research Laboratory, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xinyi Su
- Translational Retinal Research Laboratory, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Ophthalmology, National University Hospital (NUH), Singapore, Singapore
- Singapore Eye Research Institute (SERI), Singapore, Singapore
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4
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Kawai K, Ho MT, Ueno Y, Abdo D, Xue C, Nonaka H, Nishida H, Honma Y, Wallace VA, Shoichet MS. Hyaluronan improves photoreceptor differentiation and maturation in human retinal organoids. Acta Biomater 2024; 181:117-132. [PMID: 38705224 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2024.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Human stem cell-derived organoids enable both disease modeling and serve as a source of cells for transplantation. Human retinal organoids are particularly important as a source of human photoreceptors; however, the long differentiation period required and lack of vascularization in the organoid often results in a necrotic core and death of inner retinal cells before photoreceptors are fully mature. Manipulating the in vitro environment of differentiating retinal organoids through the incorporation of extracellular matrix components could influence retinal development. We investigated the addition of hyaluronan (HA), a component of the interphotoreceptor matrix, as an additive to promote long-term organoid survival and enhance retinal maturation. HA treatment had a significant reduction in the proportion of proliferating (Ki67+) cells and increase in the proportion of photoreceptors (CRX+), suggesting that HA accelerated photoreceptor commitment in vitro. HA significantly upregulated genes specific to photoreceptor maturation and outer segment development. Interestingly, prolonged HA-treatment significantly decreased the length of the brush border layer compared to those in control retinal organoids, where the photoreceptor outer segments reside; however, HA-treated organoids also had more mature outer segments with organized discs structures, as revealed by transmission electron microscopy. The brush border layer length was inversely proportional to the molar mass and viscosity of the hyaluronan added. This is the first study to investigate the role of exogenous HA, viscosity, and polymer molar mass on photoreceptor maturation, emphasizing the importance of material properties on organoid culture. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Retinal organoids are a powerful tool to study retinal development in vitro, though like many other organoid systems, can be highly variable. In this work, Shoichet and colleagues investigated the use of hyaluronan (HA), a native component of the interphotoreceptor matrix, to improve photoreceptor maturation in developing human retinal organoids. HA promoted human photoreceptor differentiation leading to mature outer segments with disc formation and more uniform and healthy retinal organoids. These findings highlight the importance of adding components native to the developing retina to generate more physiologically relevant photoreceptors for cell therapy and in vitro models to drive drug discovery and uncover novel disease mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kotoe Kawai
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Canada; Regenerative Medicine Research and Planning Division, Rohto Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 6-5-4 Kunimidai, Kizugawa, Kyoto 619-0216, Japan
| | - Margaret T Ho
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Yui Ueno
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Canada; Regenerative Medicine Research and Planning Division, Rohto Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 6-5-4 Kunimidai, Kizugawa, Kyoto 619-0216, Japan; Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Dhana Abdo
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Chang Xue
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Hidenori Nonaka
- Regenerative Medicine Research and Planning Division, Rohto Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 6-5-4 Kunimidai, Kizugawa, Kyoto 619-0216, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Nishida
- Regenerative Medicine Research and Planning Division, Rohto Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 6-5-4 Kunimidai, Kizugawa, Kyoto 619-0216, Japan
| | - Yoichi Honma
- Regenerative Medicine Research and Planning Division, Rohto Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., 6-5-4 Kunimidai, Kizugawa, Kyoto 619-0216, Japan
| | - Valerie A Wallace
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Molly S Shoichet
- Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada; Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada.
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5
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Otsuka Y, Imamura K, Oishi A, Asakawa K, Kondo T, Nakai R, Suga M, Inoue I, Sagara Y, Tsukita K, Teranaka K, Nishimura Y, Watanabe A, Umeyama K, Okushima N, Mitani K, Nagashima H, Kawakami K, Muguruma K, Tsujikawa A, Inoue H. Phototoxicity avoidance is a potential therapeutic approach for retinal dystrophy caused by EYS dysfunction. JCI Insight 2024; 9:e174179. [PMID: 38646933 PMCID: PMC11141876 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.174179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Inherited retinal dystrophies (IRDs) are progressive diseases leading to vision loss. Mutation in the eyes shut homolog (EYS) gene is one of the most frequent causes of IRD. However, the mechanism of photoreceptor cell degeneration by mutant EYS has not been fully elucidated. Here, we generated retinal organoids from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from patients with EYS-associated retinal dystrophy (EYS-RD). In photoreceptor cells of RD organoids, both EYS and G protein-coupled receptor kinase 7 (GRK7), one of the proteins handling phototoxicity, were not in the outer segment, where they are physiologically present. Furthermore, photoreceptor cells in RD organoids were vulnerable to light stimuli, and especially to blue light. Mislocalization of GRK7, which was also observed in eys-knockout zebrafish, was reversed by delivering control EYS into photoreceptor cells of RD organoids. These findings suggest that avoiding phototoxicity would be a potential therapeutic approach for EYS-RD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Otsuka
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Keiko Imamura
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project (AIP), Kyoto, Japan
| | - Akio Oishi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Kazuhide Asakawa
- Division of Molecular and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Japan
| | - Takayuki Kondo
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project (AIP), Kyoto, Japan
| | - Risako Nakai
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Mika Suga
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ikuyo Inoue
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project (AIP), Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yukako Sagara
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kayoko Tsukita
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kaori Teranaka
- Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yu Nishimura
- Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Akira Watanabe
- Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Umeyama
- Meiji University International Institute for Bio-Resource Research, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Nanako Okushima
- Division of Systems Medicine and Gene Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Kohnosuke Mitani
- Division of Systems Medicine and Gene Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Saitama Medical University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Nagashima
- Meiji University International Institute for Bio-Resource Research, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Koichi Kawakami
- Division of Molecular and Developmental Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Japan
| | - Keiko Muguruma
- Department of iPS Cell Applied Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Kansai Medical University, Hirakata, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akitaka Tsujikawa
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Haruhisa Inoue
- iPSC-based Drug discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Kyoto, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project (AIP), Kyoto, Japan
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Li G, Luo Y. Enriching new transplantable RGC-like cells from retinal organoids for RGC replacement therapy. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 700:149509. [PMID: 38306929 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.149509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
Optic neuropathies, such as glaucoma, are due to progressive retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) degeneration, result in irreversible vision loss. The promising RGCs replacement therapy for restoring vision are impeded by insufficient RGC-like cells sources. The present work was enriched one new type RGC-like cells using two surface markers CD184 and CD171 from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) by FACS sorting firstly. These new kind cells have well proliferation ability and possessed passage tolerance in vitro 2D or 3D spheroids culture, which kept expressing Pax6, Brn3b and βIII-Tubulin and so on. The transplanted CD184+CD171+ RGC-like cells could survive and integrate into the normal and optic nerve crush (ONC) mice retina, especially they were more inclined to across the optic nerve head and extend to the damaged optic nerve. These data support the feasible application for cell replacement therapy in RGC degenerative diseases, as well as help to develop new commercial cells sorting reagents and establish good manufacturing practice (GMP) grade RGC-like donor cells for further clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Yuanting Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China
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7
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Jones MK, Orozco LD, Qin H, Truong T, Caplazi P, Elstrott J, Modrusan Z, Chaney SY, Jeanne M. Integration of human stem cell-derived in vitro systems and mouse preclinical models identifies complex pathophysiologic mechanisms in retinal dystrophy. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1252547. [PMID: 37691820 PMCID: PMC10483287 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1252547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Rare DRAM2 coding variants cause retinal dystrophy with early macular involvement via unknown mechanisms. We found that DRAM2 is ubiquitously expressed in the human eye and expression changes were observed in eyes with more common maculopathy such as Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD). To gain insights into pathogenicity of DRAM2-related retinopathy, we used a combination of in vitro and in vivo models. We found that DRAM2 loss in human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived retinal organoids caused the presence of additional mesenchymal cells. Interestingly, Dram2 loss in mice also caused increased proliferation of cells from the choroid in vitro and exacerbated choroidal neovascular lesions in vivo. Furthermore, we observed that DRAM2 loss in human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells resulted in increased susceptibility to stress-induced cell death in vitro and that Dram2 loss in mice caused age-related photoreceptor degeneration. This highlights the complexity of DRAM2 function, as its loss in choroidal cells provided a proliferative advantage, whereas its loss in post-mitotic cells, such as photoreceptor and RPE cells, increased degeneration susceptibility. Different models such as human pluripotent stem cell-derived systems and mice can be leveraged to study and model human retinal dystrophies; however, cell type and species-specific expression must be taken into account when selecting relevant systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa K. Jones
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
- Product Development Clinical Science Ophthalmology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Luz D. Orozco
- Department of Bioinformatics, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Han Qin
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Tom Truong
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Patrick Caplazi
- Department of Research Pathology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Justin Elstrott
- Department of Translational Imaging, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Zora Modrusan
- Department of Microchemistry, Proteomics, Lipidomics and Next-Generation Sequencing, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Shawnta Y. Chaney
- Department of Translational Immunology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Marion Jeanne
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States
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Kang J, Gong J, Yang C, Lin X, Yan L, Gong Y, Xu H. Application of Human Stem Cell Derived Retinal Organoids in the Exploration of the Mechanisms of Early Retinal Development. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2023:10.1007/s12015-023-10553-x. [PMID: 37269529 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-023-10553-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The intricate neural circuit of retina extracts salient features of the natural world and forms bioelectric impulse as the origin of vision. The early development of retina is a highly complex and coordinated process in morphogenesis and neurogenesis. Increasing evidence indicates that stem cells derived human retinal organoids (hROs) in vitro faithfully recapitulates the embryonic developmental process of human retina no matter in the transcriptome, cellular biology and histomorphology. The emergence of hROs greatly deepens on the understanding of early development of human retina. Here, we reviewed the events of early retinal development both in animal embryos and hROs studies, which mainly comprises the formation of optic vesicle and optic cup shape, differentiation of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), photoreceptor cells (PRs) and its supportive retinal pigment epithelium cells (RPE). We also discussed the classic and frontier molecular pathways up to date to decipher the underlying mechanisms of early development of human retina and hROs. Finally, we summarized the application prospect, challenges and cutting-edge techniques of hROs for uncovering the principles and mechanisms of retinal development and related developmental disorder. hROs is a priori selection for studying human retinal development and function and may be a fundamental tool for unlocking the unknown insight into retinal development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahui Kang
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Jing Gong
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China
| | - Cao Yang
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Xi Lin
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Lijuan Yan
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Yu Gong
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China.
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, 400038, China.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Sciences Research Center, University-Town Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Haiwei Xu
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, 400038, China.
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, 400038, China.
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9
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Cheng L, Kuehn MH. Human Retinal Organoids in Therapeutic Discovery: A Review of Applications. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2023; 281:157-187. [PMID: 37608005 DOI: 10.1007/164_2023_691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs)- and induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs)-derived retinal organoids (ROs) are three-dimensional laminar structures that recapitulate the developmental trajectory of the human retina. The ROs provide a fascinating tool for basic science research, eye disease modeling, treatment development, and biobanking for tissue/cell replacement. Here we review the previous studies that paved the way for RO technology, the two most widely accepted, standardized protocols to generate ROs, and the utilization of ROs in medical discovery. This review is conducted from the perspective of basic science research, transplantation for regenerative medicine, disease modeling, and therapeutic development for drug screening and gene therapy. ROs have opened avenues for new technologies such as assembloids, coculture with other organoids, vasculature or immune cells, microfluidic devices (organ-on-chip), extracellular vesicles for drug delivery, biomaterial engineering, advanced imaging techniques, and artificial intelligence (AI). Nevertheless, some shortcomings of ROs currently limit their translation for medical applications and pose a challenge for future research. Despite these limitations, ROs are a powerful tool for functional studies and therapeutic strategies for retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Cheng
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA.
- Center for the Prevention and Treatment of Visual Loss, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Iowa City, IA, USA.
| | - Markus H Kuehn
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA
- Center for the Prevention and Treatment of Visual Loss, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Iowa City, IA, USA
- Institute for Vision Research, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA
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10
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Generation of Human iPSC-Derived Retinal Organoids for Assessment of AAV-Mediated Gene Delivery. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2560:287-302. [PMID: 36481905 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2651-1_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human retinal organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) serve as a promising preclinical model for testing the safety and efficacy of viral gene therapy. Retinal organoids recapitulate the stratified multilayered epithelium structure of the developing and maturating human retina. As such, retinal organoids are unique tools to model retinal disease and to test therapeutic interventions toward their amelioration. Here, we describe a method for the generation of human iPSC-derived retinal organoids and how they can be utilized for the assessment of recombinant adeno-associated viral (rAAV)-mediated gene delivery.
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11
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Onyak JR, Vergara MN, Renna JM. Retinal organoid light responsivity: current status and future opportunities. Transl Res 2022; 250:98-111. [PMID: 35690342 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2022.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The ability to generate human retinas in vitro from pluripotent stem cells opened unprecedented opportunities for basic science and for the development of therapeutic approaches for retinal degenerative diseases. Retinal organoid models not only mimic the histoarchitecture and cellular composition of the native retina, but they can achieve a remarkable level of maturation that allows them to respond to light stimulation. However, studies evaluating the nature, magnitude, and properties of light-evoked responsivity from each cell type, in each retinal organoid layer, have been sparse. In this review we discuss the current understanding of retinal organoid function, the technologies used for functional assessment in human retinal organoids, and the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M Natalia Vergara
- CellSight Ocular Stem Cell and Regeneration Program, Sue Anschutz-Rodgers Eye Center, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado.
| | - Jordan M Renna
- Department of Biology, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio.
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12
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Vázquez-Domínguez I, Duijkers L, Fadaie Z, Alaerds ECW, Post MA, van Oosten EM, O’Gorman L, Kwint M, Koolen L, Hoogendoorn ADM, Kroes HY, Gilissen C, Cremers FPM, Collin RWJ, Roosing S, Garanto A. The Predicted Splicing Variant c.11+5G>A in RPE65 Leads to a Reduction in mRNA Expression in a Cell-Specific Manner. Cells 2022; 11:3640. [PMID: 36429068 PMCID: PMC9688607 DOI: 10.3390/cells11223640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic variants in RPE65 lead to retinal diseases, causing a vision impairment. In this work, we investigated the pathomechanism behind the frequent RPE65 variant, c.11+5G>A. Previous in silico predictions classified this change as a splice variant. Our prediction using novel software's suggested a 124-nt exon elongation containing a premature stop codon. This elongation was validated using midigenes-based approaches. Similar results were observed in patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and photoreceptor precursor cells. However, the splicing defect in all cases was detected at low levels and thereby does not fully explain the recessive condition of the resulting disease. Long-read sequencing discarded other rearrangements or variants that could explain the diseases. Subsequently, a more relevant model was employed: iPSC-derived retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. In patient-derived iPSC-RPE cells, the expression of RPE65 was strongly reduced even after inhibiting a nonsense-mediated decay, contradicting the predicted splicing defect. Additional experiments demonstrated a cell-specific gene expression reduction due to the presence of the c.11+5G>A variant. This decrease also leads to the lack of the RPE65 protein, and differences in size and pigmentation between the patient and control iPSC-RPE. Altogether, our data suggest that the c.11+5G>A variant causes a cell-specific defect in the expression of RPE65 rather than the anticipated splicing defect which was predicted in silico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Vázquez-Domínguez
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Lonneke Duijkers
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Zeinab Fadaie
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Eef C. W. Alaerds
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Merel A. Post
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurology, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin M. van Oosten
- Department of Pediatrics, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Luke O’Gorman
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Michael Kwint
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Louet Koolen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Anita D. M. Hoogendoorn
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hester Y. Kroes
- Division Laboratories, Pharmacy and Biomedical Genetics, Clinical Genetics, University Medical Center of Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Christian Gilissen
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Frans P. M. Cremers
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Rob W. J. Collin
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Susanne Roosing
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Alejandro Garanto
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Pediatrics, Amalia Children’s Hospital, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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13
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Xu P, Guo F, Xie B, Zhong X. Generation and characterization of two iPSC lines carrying heterozygous or homozygous nonsense mutation in PROM1 gene from a single family. Stem Cell Res 2022; 64:102913. [PMID: 36191543 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2022.102913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PROM1-related retinal dystrophy (PROM1-RD) is a group of hereditary retinal disorder characterized by the progressive damage of the photoreceptors. We generated and identified two induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines carrying homozygous or heterozygous nonsense mutation c.619G > T (p.E207X) in PROM1 gene from a patient with PROM1-RD and his healthy mother, respectively. Both iPSC lines maintained the typical stem cell morphology, genomic stability and pluripotency. These iPSC lines have great potential to elucidate the disease mechanisms and develop the feasible treatments of PROM1-RD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Fuying Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Bingbing Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Xiufeng Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou 510060, China.
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14
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Jahagirdar D, Yadav S, Gore M, Korpale V, Mathpati CS, Chidambaram S, Majumder A, Jain R, Dandekar P. Compartmentalized microfluidic device for in vitro co‐culture of retinal cells. Biotechnol J 2022; 17:e2100530. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.202100530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Devashree Jahagirdar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai 400019 India
| | - Shital Yadav
- Department of Chemical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Mumbai 400076 India
| | - Manish Gore
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai 400019 India
| | - Vikram Korpale
- Department of Chemical Engineering Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai 400019 India
| | - C S Mathpati
- Department of Chemical Engineering Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai 400019 India
| | - Subbulakshmi Chidambaram
- Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Pondicherry Central University Puducherry 605014 India
| | - Abhijit Majumder
- Department of Chemical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Mumbai 400076 India
| | - Ratnesh Jain
- Department of Chemical Engineering Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai 400019 India
| | - Prajakta Dandekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai 400019 India
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15
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Guan Y, Wang Y, Zheng D, Xie B, Xu P, Gao G, Zhong X. Generation of an RCVRN-eGFP Reporter hiPSC Line by CRISPR/Cas9 to Monitor Photoreceptor Cell Development and Facilitate the Cell Enrichment for Transplantation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:870441. [PMID: 35573687 PMCID: PMC9096726 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.870441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cell-based cell therapies are considered to be promising treatments for retinal disorders with dysfunction or death of photoreceptors. However, the enrichment of human photoreceptors suitable for transplantation has been highly challenging so far. This study aimed to generate a photoreceptor-specific reporter human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) line using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, which harbored an enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) sequence at the endogenous locus of the pan photoreceptor marker recoverin (RCVRN). After confirmation of successful targeting and gene stability, three-dimensional retinal organoids were induced from this reporter line. The RCVRN-eGFP reporter faithfully replicated endogenous protein expression of recoverin and revealed the developmental characteristics of photoreceptors during retinal differentiation. The RCVRN-eGFP specifically and steadily labeled photoreceptor cells from photoreceptor precursors to mature rods and cones. Additionally, abundant eGFP-positive photoreceptors were enriched by fluorescence-activated cell sorting, and their transcriptome signatures were revealed by RNA sequencing and data analysis. Moreover, potential clusters of differentiation (CD) biomarkers were extracted for the enrichment of photoreceptors for clinical applications, such as CD133 for the positive selection of photoreceptors. Altogether, the RCVRN-eGFP reporter hiPSC line was successfully established and the first global expression database of recoverin-positive photoreceptors was constructed. These achievements will provide a powerful tool for dynamically monitoring photoreceptor cell development and purification of human photoreceptors, thus facilitating photoreceptor cell therapy for advanced retinal disorders.
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16
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Zhang X, Wang W, Jin ZB. Retinal organoids as models for development and diseases. CELL REGENERATION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2021; 10:33. [PMID: 34719743 PMCID: PMC8557999 DOI: 10.1186/s13619-021-00097-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of pluripotent stem cell-derived retinal organoids (ROs) has brought remarkable opportunities for developmental studies while also presenting new therapeutic avenues for retinal diseases. With a clear understanding of how well these models mimic native retinas, such preclinical models may be crucial tools that are widely used for the more efficient translation of studies into novel treatment strategies for retinal diseases. Genetic modifications or patient-derived ROs can allow these models to simulate the physical microenvironments of the actual disease process. However, we are currently at the beginning of the three-dimensional (3D) RO era, and a general quantitative technology for analyzing ROs derived from numerous differentiation protocols is still missing. Continued efforts to improve the efficiency and stability of differentiation, as well as understanding the disparity between the artificial retina and the native retina and advancing the current treatment strategies, will be essential in ensuring that these scientific advances can benefit patients with retinal disease. Herein, we briefly discuss RO differentiation protocols, the current applications of RO as a disease model and the treatments for retinal diseases by using RO modeling, to have a clear view of the role of current ROs in retinal development and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Zhang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Science Key Laboratory, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Wen Wang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Science Key Laboratory, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Zi-Bing Jin
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Science Key Laboratory, Beijing, 100730, China.
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17
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Sun C, Zhou J, Meng X. Primary cilia in retinal pigment epithelium development and diseases. J Cell Mol Med 2021; 25:9084-9088. [PMID: 34448530 PMCID: PMC8500982 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.16882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a highly polarized epithelial monolayer lying between the photoreceptor layer and the Bruch membrane. It is essential for vision through participating in many critical activities, including phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments, recycling the visual cycle‐related compounds, forming a barrier to control the transport of nutrients, ions, and water, and the removal of waste. Primary cilia are conservatively present in almost all the vertebrate cells and acts as a sensory organelle to control tissue development and homeostasis maintenance. Numerous studies reveal that abnormalities in RPE lead to various retinal diseases, such as age‐related macular degeneration and diabetic macular oedema, but the mechanism of primary cilia in these physiological and pathological activities remains to be elucidated. Herein, we summarize the functions of primary cilia in the RPE development and the mutations of ciliary genes identified in RPE‐related diseases. By highlighting the significance of primary cilia in regulating the physiological and pathological processes of RPE, we aim to provide novel insights for the treatment of RPE‐related retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunjiao Sun
- College of Life Sciences, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- College of Life Sciences, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Xiaoqian Meng
- College of Life Sciences, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
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18
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Wagstaff EL, Heredero Berzal A, Boon CJF, Quinn PMJ, ten Asbroek ALMA, Bergen AA. The Role of Small Molecules and Their Effect on the Molecular Mechanisms of Early Retinal Organoid Development. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7081. [PMID: 34209272 PMCID: PMC8268497 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Early in vivo embryonic retinal development is a well-documented and evolutionary conserved process. The specification towards eye development is temporally controlled by consecutive activation or inhibition of multiple key signaling pathways, such as the Wnt and hedgehog signaling pathways. Recently, with the use of retinal organoids, researchers aim to manipulate these pathways to achieve better human representative models for retinal development and disease. To achieve this, a plethora of different small molecules and signaling factors have been used at various time points and concentrations in retinal organoid differentiations, with varying success. Additions differ from protocol to protocol, but their usefulness or efficiency has not yet been systematically reviewed. Interestingly, many of these small molecules affect the same and/or multiple pathways, leading to reduced reproducibility and high variability between studies. In this review, we make an inventory of the key signaling pathways involved in early retinogenesis and their effect on the development of the early retina in vitro. Further, we provide a comprehensive overview of the small molecules and signaling factors that are added to retinal organoid differentiation protocols, documenting the molecular and functional effects of these additions. Lastly, we comparatively evaluate several of these factors using our established retinal organoid methodology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellie L. Wagstaff
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam (UvA), 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | - Andrea Heredero Berzal
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam (UvA), 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (A.H.B.); (C.J.F.B.)
| | - Camiel J. F. Boon
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam (UvA), 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (A.H.B.); (C.J.F.B.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Peter M. J. Quinn
- Jonas Children’s Vision Care and Bernard & Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology & Cell Biology, Institute of Human Nutrition, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center—New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY 10032, USA;
| | | | - Arthur A. Bergen
- Department of Human Genetics, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam (UvA), 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
- Department of Ophthalmology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam (UvA), 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (A.H.B.); (C.J.F.B.)
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (NIN-KNAW), 1105 BA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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19
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Louey A, Hernández D, Pébay A, Daniszewski M. Automation of Organoid Cultures: Current Protocols and Applications. SLAS DISCOVERY 2021; 26:1138-1147. [PMID: 34167363 DOI: 10.1177/24725552211024547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT [Formula: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Louey
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Damián Hernández
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alice Pébay
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Surgery, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Maciej Daniszewski
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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20
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McNerney C, Johnston RJ. Thyroid hormone signaling specifies cone photoreceptor subtypes during eye development: Insights from model organisms and human stem cell-derived retinal organoids. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2021; 116:51-90. [PMID: 33752828 DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2021.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Cones are the color-detecting photoreceptors of the vertebrate eye. Cones are specialized into subtypes whose functions are determined by the expression of color-sensitive opsin proteins. Organisms differ greatly in the number and patterning of cone subtypes. Despite these differences, thyroid hormone is an important regulator of opsin expression in most vertebrates. In this chapter, we outline how the timing of thyroid hormone signaling controls cone subtype fates during retinal development. We first examine our current understanding of cone subtype specification in model organisms and then describe advances in human stem cell-derived organoid technology that identified mechanisms controlling development of the human retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina McNerney
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Robert J Johnston
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States.
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21
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Abstract
Organoids are in vitro miniaturized and simplified model systems of organs that have gained enormous interest for modelling tissue development and disease, and for personalized medicine, drug screening and cell therapy. Despite considerable success in culturing physiologically relevant organoids, challenges remain to achieve real-life applications. In particular, the high variability of self-organizing growth and restricted experimental and analytical access hamper the translatability of organoid systems. In this Review, we argue that many limitations of traditional organoid culture can be addressed by engineering approaches at all levels of organoid systems. We investigate cell surface and genetic engineering approaches, and discuss stem cell niche engineering based on the design of matrices that allow spatiotemporal control of organoid growth and shape-guided morphogenesis. We examine how microfluidic approaches and lessons learnt from organs-on-a-chip enable the integration of mechano-physiological parameters and increase accessibility of organoids to improve functional readouts. Applying engineering principles to organoids increases reproducibility and provides experimental control, which will, ultimately, be required to enable clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Hofer
- Laboratory of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences (SV) and School of Engineering (STI), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matthias P. Lutolf
- Laboratory of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences (SV) and School of Engineering (STI), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, School of Basic Science (SB), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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22
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Properties and Therapeutic Implications of an Enigmatic D477G RPE65 Variant Associated with Autosomal Dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11121420. [PMID: 33261050 PMCID: PMC7760593 DOI: 10.3390/genes11121420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RPE65 isomerase, expressed in the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), is an enzymatic component of the retinoid cycle, converting all-trans retinyl ester into 11-cis retinol, and it is essential for vision, because it replenishes the photon capturing 11-cis retinal. To date, almost 200 loss-of-function mutations have been identified within the RPE65 gene causing inherited retinal dystrophies, most notably Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) and autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (arRP), which are both severe and early onset disease entities. We previously reported a mutation, D477G, co-segregating with the disease in a late-onset form of autosomal dominant RP (adRP) with choroidal involvement; uniquely, it is the only RPE65 variant to be described with a dominant component. Families or individuals with this variant have been encountered in five countries, and a number of subsequent studies have been reported in which the molecular biological and physiological properties of the variant have been studied in further detail, including observations of possible novel functions in addition to reduced RPE65 enzymatic activity. With regard to the latter, a human phase 1b proof-of-concept study has recently been reported in which aspects of remaining vision were improved for up to one year in four of five patients with advanced disease receiving a single one-week oral dose of 9-cis retinaldehyde, which is the first report showing efficacy and safety of an oral therapy for a dominant form of RP. Here, we review data accrued from published studies investigating molecular mechanisms of this unique variant and include hitherto unpublished material on the clinical spectrum of disease encountered in patients with the D477G variant, which, in many cases bears striking similarities to choroideremia.
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23
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Manafi N, Shokri F, Achberger K, Hirayama M, Mohammadi MH, Noorizadeh F, Hong J, Liebau S, Tsuji T, Quinn PMJ, Mashaghi A. Organoids and organ chips in ophthalmology. Ocul Surf 2020; 19:1-15. [PMID: 33220469 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances have driven the development of stem cell-derived, self-organizing, three-dimensional miniature organs, termed organoids, which mimic different eye tissues including the retina, cornea, and lens. Organoids and engineered microfluidic organ-on-chips (organ chips) are transformative technologies that show promise in simulating the architectural and functional complexity of native organs. Accordingly, they enable exploration of facets of human disease and development not accurately recapitulated by animal models. Together, these technologies will increase our understanding of the basic physiology of different eye structures, enable us to interrogate unknown aspects of ophthalmic disease pathogenesis, and serve as clinically-relevant surrogates for the evaluation of ocular therapeutics. Both the burden and prevalence of monogenic and multifactorial ophthalmic diseases, which can cause visual impairment or blindness, in the human population warrants a paradigm shift towards organoids and organ chips that can provide sensitive, quantitative, and scalable phenotypic assays. In this article, we review the current situation of organoids and organ chips in ophthalmology and discuss how they can be leveraged for translational applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navid Manafi
- Medical Systems Biophysics and Bioengineering, The Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, 2333CC, Leiden, the Netherlands; Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0W2, Canada
| | - Fereshteh Shokri
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kevin Achberger
- Institute of Neuroanatomy & Developmental Biology (INDB), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Österbergstrasse 3, 72074, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Masatoshi Hirayama
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tokyo Dental College Ichikawa General Hospital, Chiba, 272-8513, Japan; Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Melika Haji Mohammadi
- Medical Systems Biophysics and Bioengineering, The Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, 2333CC, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Jiaxu Hong
- Medical Systems Biophysics and Bioengineering, The Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, 2333CC, Leiden, the Netherlands; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Eye, and ENT Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, 83 Fenyang Road, Shanghai, China; Key NHC Key Laboratory of Myopia (Fudan University), Laboratory of Myopia, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shanghai, China; Key Laboratory of Myopia, National Health and Family Planning Commission, Shanghai, China
| | - Stefan Liebau
- Institute of Neuroanatomy & Developmental Biology (INDB), Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Österbergstrasse 3, 72074, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Takashi Tsuji
- Laboratory for Organ Regeneration, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Hyogo, 650-0047, Japan; Organ Technologies Inc., Minato, Tokyo, 105-0001, Japan
| | - Peter M J Quinn
- Jonas Children's Vision Care and Bernard & Shirlee Brown Glaucoma Laboratory, Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology & Cell Biology, Institute of Human Nutrition, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University. New York, NY, USA; Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center - New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Alireza Mashaghi
- Medical Systems Biophysics and Bioengineering, The Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, 2333CC, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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The Rise of Retinal Organoids for Vision Research. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21228484. [PMID: 33187246 PMCID: PMC7697892 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21228484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinal degenerative diseases lead to irreversible blindness. Decades of research into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of retinal diseases, using either animal models or human cell-derived 2D systems, facilitated the development of several therapeutic interventions. Recently, human stem cell-derived 3D retinal organoids have been developed. These self-organizing 3D organ systems have shown to recapitulate the in vivo human retinogenesis resulting in morphological and functionally similar retinal cell types in vitro. In less than a decade, retinal organoids have assisted in modeling several retinal diseases that were rather difficult to mimic in rodent models. Retinal organoids are also considered as a photoreceptor source for cell transplantation therapies to counteract blindness. Here, we highlight the development and field’s improvements of retinal organoids and discuss their application aspects as human disease models, pharmaceutical testbeds, and cell sources for transplantations.
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25
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Generation of an induced pluripotent stem cell line from chorionic villi of a Patau syndrome spontaneous abortion. Stem Cell Res 2020; 45:101789. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2020.101789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Gao ML, Lei XL, Han F, He KW, Jin SQ, Zhang YY, Jin ZB. Patient-Specific Retinal Organoids Recapitulate Disease Features of Late-Onset Retinitis Pigmentosa. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:128. [PMID: 32211407 PMCID: PMC7068133 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although an increasing number of disease genes have been identified, the exact cellular mechanisms of retinitis pigmentosa (RP) remain largely unclear. Retinal organoids (ROs) derived from the induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) of patients provide a potential but unvalidated platform for deciphering disease mechanisms and an advantageous tool for preclinical testing of new treatments. Notably, early-onset RP has been extensively recapitulated by patient-iPSC-derived ROs. However, it remains a challenge to model late-onset disease in a dish due to its chronicity, complexity, and instability. Here, we generated ROs from late-onset RP proband-derived iPSCs harboring a PDE6B mutation. Transcriptome analysis revealed a remarkably distinct gene expression profile in the patient ROs at differentiation day (D) 230. Changes in the expression genes regulating cGMP hydrolysis prompted the elevation of cGMP levels, which was verified by a cGMP enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in patient ROs. Furthermore, significantly higher cGMP levels in patient ROs than in control ROs at D193 and D230 might lead to impaired formation of synaptic connections and the connecting cilium in photoreceptor cells. In this study, we established the first late-onset RP model with a consistent phenotype using an in vitro cell culture system and provided new insights into the PDE6B-related mechanism of RP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Ling Gao
- Laboratory of Stem Cell & Retinal Regeneration, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Division of Ophthalmic Genetics, The Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- National Center for International Research in Regenerative Medicine and Neurogenetics, National Clinical Research Center for Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, China
| | - Xin-Lan Lei
- Laboratory of Stem Cell & Retinal Regeneration, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Division of Ophthalmic Genetics, The Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- National Center for International Research in Regenerative Medicine and Neurogenetics, National Clinical Research Center for Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, China
| | - Fang Han
- Laboratory of Stem Cell & Retinal Regeneration, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Division of Ophthalmic Genetics, The Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- National Center for International Research in Regenerative Medicine and Neurogenetics, National Clinical Research Center for Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, China
| | - Kai-Wen He
- Laboratory of Stem Cell & Retinal Regeneration, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Division of Ophthalmic Genetics, The Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- National Center for International Research in Regenerative Medicine and Neurogenetics, National Clinical Research Center for Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, China
| | - Si-Qian Jin
- Laboratory of Stem Cell & Retinal Regeneration, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Division of Ophthalmic Genetics, The Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- National Center for International Research in Regenerative Medicine and Neurogenetics, National Clinical Research Center for Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, China
| | - You-You Zhang
- Laboratory of Stem Cell & Retinal Regeneration, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Division of Ophthalmic Genetics, The Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- National Center for International Research in Regenerative Medicine and Neurogenetics, National Clinical Research Center for Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zi-Bing Jin
- Laboratory of Stem Cell & Retinal Regeneration, Institute of Stem Cell Research, Division of Ophthalmic Genetics, The Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- National Center for International Research in Regenerative Medicine and Neurogenetics, National Clinical Research Center for Ophthalmology, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, China
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Motta FL, Martin RP, Porto FBO, Wohler ES, Resende RG, Gomes CP, Pesquero JB, Sallum JMF. Pathogenicity Reclasssification of RPE65 Missense Variants Related to Leber Congenital Amaurosis and Early-Onset Retinal Dystrophy. Genes (Basel) 2019; 11:E24. [PMID: 31878136 PMCID: PMC7016655 DOI: 10.3390/genes11010024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2019] [Revised: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A challenge in molecular diagnosis and genetic counseling is the interpretation of variants of uncertain significance. Proper pathogenicity classification of new variants is important for the conclusion of molecular diagnosis and the medical management of patient treatments. The purpose of this study was to reclassify two RPE65 missense variants, c.247T>C (p.Phe83Leu) and c.560G>A (p.Gly187Glu), found in Brazilian families. To achieve this aim, we reviewed the sequencing data of a 224-gene retinopathy panel from 556 patients (513 families) with inherited retinal dystrophies. Five patients with p.Phe83Leu and seven with p.Gly187Glu were selected and their families investigated. To comprehend the pathogenicity of these variants, we evaluated them based on the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology (ACMG/AMP) classification guidelines. Initially, these RPE65 variants met only three pathogenic criteria: (i) absence or low frequency in the population, (ii) several missense pathogenic RPE65 variants, and (iii) 15 out of 16 lines of computational evidence supporting them as damaging, which together allowed the variants to be classified as uncertain significance. Two other pieces of evidence were accepted after further analysis of these Brazilian families: (i) p.Phe83Leu and p.Gly187Glu segregate with childhood retinal dystrophy within families, and (ii) their prevalence in Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA)/early-onset retinal dystrophy (EORD) patients can be considered higher than in other inherited retinal dystrophy patients. Therefore, these variants can now be classified as likely pathogenic according to ACMG/AMP classification guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana L. Motta
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Sao Paulo SP 04039-032, Brazil;
- Instituto de Genética Ocular, Sao Paulo SP 04552-050, Brazil
| | - Renan P. Martin
- McKusick-Nathans Department of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; (R.P.M.); (E.S.W.)
| | - Fernanda B. O. Porto
- INRET Clínica e Centro de Pesquisa, Belo Horizonte MG 30150-270, Brazil;
- Centro Oftalmológico de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte MG 30180-070, Brazil
| | - Elizabeth S. Wohler
- McKusick-Nathans Department of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; (R.P.M.); (E.S.W.)
| | | | - Caio P. Gomes
- Department of Biophysics, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo SP 04039-032, Brazil; (C.P.G.); (J.B.P.)
| | - João B. Pesquero
- Department of Biophysics, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo SP 04039-032, Brazil; (C.P.G.); (J.B.P.)
| | - Juliana M. F. Sallum
- Department of Ophthalmology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Sao Paulo SP 04039-032, Brazil;
- Instituto de Genética Ocular, Sao Paulo SP 04552-050, Brazil
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