Sensitivity of Physiological Measures of Acute Driver Stress: A Meta-Analytic Review

Exploring hazard anticipation and stress while driving in light of defensive behavior theory

In driving, poor hazard anticipation would provide drivers less time to prepare an appropriate response, increasing the urgency of the situation and generating more stress. Assuming this, the current study seeks to determine whether a predictable road hazard triggers hazard anticipation in drivers that can mitigate the ensuing stress response, and whether the stress response is influenced by driving experience. In a simulated road environment, a cue was used to trigger hazard anticipation, and a road hazard to induce a stress response. Heart rate, pupil diameter, driving speed, subjective stress, arousal, and negative emotions, were retrieved from 36 drivers who all faced the cue followed by the hazard (i.e. a predictable hazard), the cue only, and the hazard only. In the light of work on defensive behaviors, the findings indicate that a predictable hazard triggers hazard anticipation detectable via (1) freezing behavior-characterized by cardiac deceleration-(2) anticipatory pupil dilation and (3) anticipatory speed deceleration. The results also point to a beneficial role for hazard anticipation in reducing driver stress, as evidenced by reductions in peak heart rate levels, as well as in reported levels of stress and negative emotions. Finally, the findings showed an influence of driving experience on reported levels of stress. Overall, this study shows how previous work on defensive behaviors can be used to gain insight into the processes and driving behaviors involved in hazard anticipation and stress.