Microenvironment Cell Contribution to Lymphoma Immunity

Non-neoplastic cells as prognostic biomarkers in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: A system review and meta-analysis

The microenvironment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is composed of various components, including immune cells and immune checkpoints, some of which have been correlated with the prognosis of DLBCL, but their results remain controversial. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the association between the microenvironment and prognosis in DLBCL. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE for relevant articles between 2001 and 2022. Twenty-five studies involving 4495 patients with DLBCL were included in the analysis. This meta-analysis confirmed that high densities of Foxp3+Tregs and PD-1+T cells are good indicators for overall survival (OS) in DLBCL, while high densities of programmed cell death protein ligand1(PD-L1)-positive expression cells and T-cell immunoglobulin-and mucin domain-3-containing molecule 3 (TIM-3)-positive expression tumor-infiltrating cells (TILs) play a contrary role in OS. Additionally, higher numbers of T-cell intracytoplasmic antigen-1(TIA-1)-positive expression T cells imply better OS and progression-free survival (PFS), while high numbers of lymphocyte activation gene(LAG)-positive expression TILs predict bad OS and PFS. Various non-tumoral cells in the microenvironment play important roles in the prognosis of DLBCL.

Flow-cytometry Assessment of DNA content and Immunophenotyping of Immune-cells in Lymph-node-specimens as a Potential Diagnostic Signature of Aggressiveness in B-Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas

Flow-cytometry (FC) is a powerful tool that can assist in lymphoma diagnosis in lymph node (LN) specimens. Although lymphoma diagnosis and classification are mainly based on tumor cell characteristics, surrounding cells are less employed in this process. We retrospectively investigated alterations in the ploidy status, proliferative cell fraction (PF) and the percentages of surrounding immune cells in 62 consecutive LN specimens with B-Cell Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (B-NHL) that were submitted for FC evaluation between 2019-2022. Compared with indolent B-NHLs, aggressive B-NHLs show increased DNA aneuploidy and PF, increased monocytes, immature-granulocytes, mature granulocytes, CD8+ T-cells, Double-Negative-T-cells and Double-Positive-T-cells, and decreased total CD45+ cells, total lymphocytes, CD4+ T-cells and CD4/CD8 ratio. Receiver operating characteristic analysis determined PF > 6.8% and immature-granulocytes > 0.9% as optimal cutoffs with highest specificity and sensitivity in differentiating aggressive and indolent B-NHLs. These findings further strength the diagnostic value of DNA content analysis by FC and suggest the utilization of tumor surrounding immune cells in NHL diagnosis and classification.

Potential Associations between Vascular Biology and Hodgkin's Lymphoma: An Overview

Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) is a lymphatic neoplasm typically found in the cervical lymph nodes. The disease is multifactorial, and in recent years, the relationships between various vascular molecules have been explored in the field of vascular biology. The connection between vascular biology and HL is intricate and the roles of several pathways remain unclear. This review summarizes the cellular and molecular relationships between vascular biology and HL. Proteins associated with various functions in vascular biology, including cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1, IL-13, and IL-21), chemokines (CXCL10, CXCL12, and CCL21), adhesion molecules (ELAM-1/VCAM-1), and growth factors (BDNF/NT-3, platelet-derived growth factor receptor-α), have been linked to tumor activity. Notable tumor activities include the induction of paracrine activation of NF-kB-dependent pathways, upregulation of adhesion molecule regulation, genome amplification, and effective loss of antigen presentation mediated by MHC-II. Preclinical study models, primarily those using cell culture, have been optimized for HL. Animal models, particularly mice, are also used as alternatives to complex biological systems, with studies primarily focusing on the physiopathogenic evaluation of the disease. These biomolecules warrant further study because they may shed light on obscure pathways and serve as targets for prevention and/or treatment interventions.

Eosinophil-rich variant of nodal marginal zone lymphoma: a clinicopathological study of 11 cases

AIMS

Tissue eosinophilia is commonly observed in T-cell and classic Hodgkin lymphomas, but rarely in B-cell lymphomas. Herein, we present the first report of a case series on nodal marginal zone lymphoma (NMZL) with tissue eosinophilia.

METHODS AND RESULTS

All 11 patients in this study had nodal disease at primary presentation. The mean age at diagnosis was 64 years. The mean follow-up period was 39 months, and all patients were alive. Nine of the 11 patients (82%) showed no recurrence, but the other two patients experienced recurrence in the lymph nodes or skin. Marked eosinophilic infiltration was observed in all biopsied lymph nodes. Nine of the 11 patients had a preserved nodular architecture with expanded interfollicular areas. The other two patients showed diffuse lymphoma cell infiltration with effacement of nodal architecture. One of them was diagnosed as having diffuse large B-cell lymphoma transformed from NMZL because large cells accounted for >50% of the lymphoma cells and formed sheet-like patterns. Cells were positive for CD20 and BCL2 and negative for CD5, CD10, and BCL6. Some patients showed myeloid cell nuclear differentiation antigen (MNDA) positivity. All patients showed B-cell monoclonality via flow cytometry, southern blotting, and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

CONCLUSION

All patients showed distinctive morphological features and could be misdiagnosed with peripheral T-cell lymphoma due to their eosinophil-rich backgrounds. The predominance of B cells, absence of histiocytes, and high endothelial venules in the interfollicular areas are key factors for diagnosis. B-cell monoclonality is the most reliable evidence of differentiation. We designated this type of lymphoma as an eosinophil-rich variant of NMZL.

T-cell phenotype including CD57+ T follicular helper cells in the tumor microenvironment correlate with a poor outcome in follicular lymphoma

T-lymphocytes are prevalent in the tumor microenvironment of follicular lymphoma (FL). However, the phenotype of T-cells may vary, and the prevalence of certain T-cell subsets may influence tumor biology and patient survival. We therefore analyzed a cohort of 82 FL patients using CyTOF to determine whether specific T-cell phenotypes were associated with distinct tumor microenvironments and patient outcome. We identified four immune subgroups with differing T-cell phenotypes and the prevalence of certain T-cell subsets was associated with patient survival. Patients with increased T cells with early differentiation stage tended to have a significantly better survival than patients with increased T-cells of late differentiation stage. Specifically, CD57+ TFH cells, with a late-stage differentiation phenotype, were significantly more abundant in FL patients who had early disease progression and therefore correlated with an inferior survival. Single cell analysis (CITE-seq) revealed that CD57+ TFH cells exhibited a substantially different transcriptome from CD57- TFH cells with upregulation of inflammatory pathways, evidence of immune exhaustion and susceptibility to apoptosis. Taken together, our results show that different tumor microenvironments among FL patients are associated with variable T-cell phenotypes and an increased prevalence of CD57+ TFH cells is associated with poor patient survival.

Tumor microenvironment contribution to checkpoint blockade therapy: lessons learned from Hodgkin lymphoma

Classic Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) is characterized by a tumor microenvironment (TME) containing inflammatory/immune cells. Follicular lymphoma, mediastinal gray zone lymphoma, and diffuse large B-cell lymphomas may show a TME containing inflammatory/immune cells, but the TMEs are quite different. In B-cell lymphomas and cHL, programmed cell death 1 (PD-1)-PD ligand 1 pathway blockade drugs differ in their effectiveness among patients with refractory/relapsed disease. Further research should explore innovative assays that could reveal which molecules influence sensitivity or resistance to therapy in an individual patient.

CCL8 as a promising prognostic factor in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma via M2 macrophage interactions: A bioinformatic analysis of the tumor microenvironment

Backgrounds

Prior investigations of the tumor microenvironment (TME) of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) have shown that immune and stromal cells are key contributing factors to patients’ outcome. However, challenges remain in finding reliable prognostic biomarkers based on cell infiltration. In this study, we attempted to shed some light on chemokine C–C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CCL8) in DLBCL via interaction with M2 macrophages.

Methods

The Estimation of STromal and Immune cells in MAlignant Tumor tissues using Expression data (ESTIMATE) algorithm was applied to evaluate immune and stromal scores from transcriptomic profiles of 443 DLBCL samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and GSE10846 datasets. Immune cell infiltration (ICI) clusters were obtained based on different immune cell infiltrations of each sample, and gene clusters were derived through differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the distinct ICI clusters. Five immune-related hub genes related to overall survival (OS) and clinical stages were obtained by COX regression analysis and protein–protein interaction (PPI) network construction then verified by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and immunofluorescence staining in the FFPE tissues. The Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and TIMER websites were employed to explore the biological functions of CCL8-related DEGs. Uni- and multivariable Cox regression analyses were performed to analyze CCL8 as an independent prognostic risk factor in GSE10846 and were verified in other independent GEO cohorts.

Results

A higher stromal score was associated with favorable prognosis in DLBCL. Patients in the ICI B cluster and gene B clusters had a better follow-up status with a higher programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4) expression. Most of ICI-related DEGs were enriched for immune-related signaling pathways. Five hub genes with a distinct prognosis association were identified, including CD163, which is a biomarker of M2 macrophages, and CCL8. Abundant M2 macrophages were discovered in the high-CCL8 expression group. The functional analysis indicated that CCL8 is a key component of immune-related processes and secretory granule groups. Cox regression analysis and data from other GSE datasets yielded additional evidence of the prognostic value of CCL8 in DLBCL.

Conclusions

CCL8 has been implicated in macrophage recruitment in several solid tumors, and only a few reports have been published on the role of CCL8 in the pathogenesis of hematological malignancies. This article attempted to find out TME-related genes that associated with the survival in DLBCL patients. CCL8 was identified to be involved in immune activities. Importantly, a series of bioinformatics analysis indicated that CCL8 might become an effective target for DLBCL, which interacts with M2 macrophage and immune checkpoint. The potential related mechanisms need to be further elucidated.

Lkb1 aggravates diffuse large B-cell lymphoma by promoting the function of Treg cells and immune escape

Background

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) induce immune responses and may contribute to immune escape in tumors. Accumulation of Tregs in tumors represents a critical barrier to anti-tumor immunity and immunotherapy. However, conflicting results describing the role of Tregs in lymphoma warrant further investigation. The precise features and mechanisms underlying the alteration in Tregs in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) are not well understood yet. In this study, we analyzed the mechanism underlying the observed alterations in Tregs in DLBCL and examined the effect of Lkb1 expression on the immunosuppressive function of human Tregs.

Methods

Flow cytometry and immunofluorescence were used to analyze the proportion of Tregs and effector Tregs in the peripheral blood and lymph nodes of patients with DLBCL and control group. In vitro culture assays were used to analyze the immunosuppressive function of Tregs in the two groups. Transcriptome sequencing was performed to analyze the differentially expressed genes in the two groups, and the transcription level and protein expression of Lkb1 in the two groups were detected using RT-PCR and WES microprotein technology. Lentiviral vectors were constructed to explore the functional changes of Tregs with stable upregulation and downregulation of Lkb1. Finally, a humanized murine lymphoma model was established to study the function of Lkb1 in Tregs in the pathogenesis of DLBCL.

Results

The number of Tregs was found to be dramatically increased in peripheral blood and tumor tissue in DLBCL patients compared with that in healthy controls, and decreased after treatment. Tregs from DLBCL patients exhibited multiple enhanced functions, including increased inhibition of CD8⁺cytotoxic T cells (CTL) against tumor cells, enhanced suppression of CD8⁺CTL secretion of granular enzyme, and suppression of CD8⁺CTL degranulation. Lkb1 was found to be upregulated in Tregs of DLBCL patients. Furthermore, Lkb1 contributes to Treg immunosuppressive function in DLBCL by regulating the mevalonate pathway. Finally, deletion of Lkb1 in Tregs suppressed tumor growth and promoted anti-tumor immunity in a DLBCL murine model.

Conclusions

These findings confirmed that Lkb1-regulated Tregs are critical for immune escape in DLBCL, which emphasizes that Lkb1 is a potential target for the immunotherapy of DLBCL.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-022-03588-0.

Bone Marrow Lymphoid Niche Adaptation to Mature B Cell Neoplasms

B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL) evolution and treatment are complicated by a high prevalence of relapses primarily due to the ability of malignant B cells to interact with tumor-supportive lymph node (LN) and bone marrow (BM) microenvironments. In particular, progressive alterations of BM stromal cells sustain the survival, proliferation, and drug resistance of tumor B cells during diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), follicular lymphoma (FL), and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The current review describes how the crosstalk between BM stromal cells and lymphoma tumor cells triggers the establishment of the tumor supportive niche. DLBCL, FL, and CLL display distinct patterns of BM involvement, but in each case tumor-infiltrating stromal cells, corresponding to cancer-associated fibroblasts, exhibit specific phenotypic and functional features promoting the recruitment, adhesion, and survival of tumor cells. Tumor cell-derived extracellular vesicles have been recently proposed as playing a central role in triggering initial induction of tumor-supportive niches, notably within the BM. Finally, the disruption of the BM stroma reprogramming emerges as a promising therapeutic option in B-cell lymphomas. Targeting the crosstalk between BM stromal cells and malignant B cells, either through the inhibition of stroma-derived B-cell growth factors or through the mobilization of clonal B cells outside their supportive BM niche, should in particular be further evaluated as a way to avoid relapses by abrogating resistance niches.

Significance of trogocytosis and exosome-mediated transport in establishing and maintaining the tumor microenvironment in lymphoid malignancies

It is widely accepted that the tumor microenvironment plays an important role in the progression of lymphoid malignancies. Interaction between the tumor and its surrounding immune cells is considered a potential therapeutic target. For example, anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) antibody stimulates the surrounding exhausted immune cells to release PD-1/PD-L1, thereby leading to the regression of PD-L1-positive tumors. Recently, biological phenomena, such as trogocytosis and exosome-mediated transport were demonstrated to be involved in establishing and maintaining the tumor microenvironment. We found that trogocytosis-mediated PD-L1/L2 transfer from tumor cells to monocytes/macrophages is involved in immune dysfunction in classic Hodgkin lymphoma. Exosomes derived from Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated lymphoma cells induce lymphoma tumorigenesis by transferring the EBV-coding microRNAs from the infected cells to macrophages. In this review, we summarized these biological phenomena based on our findings.

Landscape of 4D Cell Interaction in Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas

Simple Summary

Little is known about the motility and interaction of primary human lymphoma cells in lymph nodes. The aim of this study therefore was to analyze for the first time if there are differences in motility and interaction with bystander cells between different lymphoma types and normal lymph nodes. We observed systematic differences between B cells and PD1-positive T cells. Furthermore, most cases of Hodgkin lymphomas had fast moving PD1-positive T cells, whereas there was little movement in other lymphoma types. Some lymphomas, particularly Hodgkin lymphomas, presented enhanced cell contacts between neoplastic and reactive cells, suggesting a dependency of lymphoma growth on cellular interaction.

Abstract

Profound knowledge exists about the clinical, morphologic, genomic, and transcriptomic characteristics of most lymphoma entities. However, information is currently lacking on the dynamic behavior of malignant lymphomas. This pilot study aimed to gain insight into the motility of malignant lymphomas and bystander cells in 20 human lymph nodes. Generally, B cells were faster under reactive conditions compared with B cells in malignant lymphomas. In contrast, PD1-positive T cells did not show systematic differences in velocity between reactive and neoplastic conditions in general. However, lymphomas could be divided into two groups: one with fast PD1-positive T cells (e.g., Hodgkin lymphoma and mantle cell lymphoma; means 8.4 and 7.8 µm/min) and another with slower PD1-positive T cells (e.g., mediastinal grey zone lymphoma; mean 3.5 µm/min). Although the number of contacts between lymphoma cells and PD1-positive T cells was similar in different lymphoma types, important differences were observed in the duration of these contacts. Among the lymphomas with fast PD1-positive T cells, contacts were particularly short in mantle cell lymphoma (mean 54 s), whereas nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma presented prolonged contact times (mean 6.1 min). Short contact times in mantle cell lymphoma were associated with the largest spatial displacement of PD1-positive cells (mean 12.3 µm). Although PD1-positive T cells in nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma were fast, they remained in close contact with the lymphoma cells, in line with a dynamic immunological synapse. This pilot study shows for the first time systematic differences in the dynamic behavior of lymphoma and bystander cells between different lymphoma types.

High Counts of CD68+ and CD163+ Macrophages in Mantle Cell Lymphoma Are Associated With Inferior Prognosis

Background

Lymphoma-associated macrophages (LAMs) are key components in the lymphoma microenvironment, which may impact disease progression and response to therapy. There are two major subtypes of LAMs, CD68+ M1 and CD163+ M2. M2 LAMs can be transformed from M1 LAMs, particularly in certain diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCL). While mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is well-known to contain frequent epithelioid macrophages, LAM characterization within MCL has not been fully described. Herein we evaluate the immunophenotypic subclassification, the expression of immune checkpoint molecule PD-L1, and the prognostic impact of LAMs in MCL.

Materials and Methods

A total of 82 MCL cases were collected and a tissue microarray block was constructed. Immunohistochemical staining was performed using CD68 and CD163, and the positive cells were recorded manually in four representative 400× fields for each case. Multiplexed quantitative immunofluorescence assays were carried out to determine PD-L1 expression on CD68+ M1 LAMs and CD163+ M2 LAMs. In addition, we assessed Ki67 proliferation rate of MCL by an automated method using the QuPath digital imaging analysis. The cut-off points of optimal separation of overall survival (OS) were analyzed using the X-Tile software, the SPSS version 26 was used to construct survival curves, and the log-rank test was performed to calculate the p-values.

Results

MCL had a much higher count of M1 LAMs than M2 LAMs with a CD68:CD163 ratio of 3:1. Both M1 and M2 LAMs were increased in MCL cases with high Ki67 proliferation rates (>30%), in contrast to those with low Ki67 (<30%). Increased number of M1 or M2 LAMs in MCL was associated with an inferior OS. Moreover, high expression of PD-L1 on M1 LAMs had a slightly better OS than the cases with low PD-L1 expression, whereas low expression of PD-L1 on M2 LAMs had a slightly improved OS, although both were not statistically significant.

Conclusions

In contrast to DLBCL, MCL had a significantly lower rate of M1 to M2 polarization, and the high levels of M1 and M2 LAMs were associated with poor OS. Furthermore, differential PD-L1 expressions on LAMs may partially explain the different functions of tumor-suppressing or tumor-promoting of M1 and M2 LAMs, respectively.

Testicular Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma-Clinical, Molecular, and Immunological Features

Simple Summary

Testicular diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (T-DLBCL) is a rare and aggressive lymphoma entity that mainly affects elderly men. It has a high relapse rate with especially the relapses of the central nervous system associating with dismal outcome. T-DLBCL has a unique biology with distinct genetic characteristics and clinical presentation, and the increasing knowledge on the tumor microenvironment of T-DLBCL highlights the significance of the host immunity and immune escape in this rare lymphoma, presenting in an immune-privileged site of the testis. This review provides an update on the latest progress made in T-DLBCL research and summarizes the clinical perspectives in T-DLBCL.

Abstract

Primary testicular lymphoma is a rare lymphoma entity, yet it is the most common testicular malignancy among elderly men. The majority of the cases represent non-germinal center B-cell-like (non-GCB) diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) with aggressive clinical behavior and a relatively high relapse rate. Due to the rareness of the disease, no randomized clinical trials have been conducted and the currently recognized standard of care is based on retrospective analyses and few phase II trials. During recent years, the tumor microenvironment (TME) and tumor-related immunity have been the focus of many tumor biology studies, and the emergence of targeted therapies and checkpoint inhibitors has significantly modulated the field of cancer therapies. Testicular DLBCL (T-DLBCL) is presented in an immune-privileged site of the testis, and the roles of NF-κB pathway signaling, 9p24.1 aberrations, and tumor-infiltrating immune cells, especially immune checkpoint expressing lymphocytes and macrophages, seem to be unique compared to other lymphoma entities. Preliminary data on the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the treatment of T-DLBCL are promising and more studies are ongoing.

High numbers of programmed cell death-1-positive tumor infiltrating lymphocytes correlate with early onset of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a life-threatening complication of transplantation. In addition to reactivation of Epstein-Barr virus in immunocompromised patients, impaired tumor immunity is suggested to be a risk factor for PTLD. However, it remains unclear whether immune suppressive tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) correlate with the occurrence or prognosis of PTLD. We analyzed TILs in 26 patients with PTLD to elucidate the clinicopathological significance of the expression of PD-1 and FoxP3, which are associated with exhausted T-cells and regulatory T-cells (Tregs), respectively. Numbers of PD-1⁺ TILs in the PTLD specimens were significantly higher in patients who developed PTLD early after transplantation (P = 0.0040), while numbers of FoxP3⁺ TILs were not (P = 0.184). There was no difference in overall response rate regardless of the expression of PD-1 or FoxP3. FoxP3^high patients tended to have a shorter time to progression compared with FoxP3^low patients, especially in the case of FoxP3^high patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma-subtype PTLD (P = 0.011), while PD-1^high patients did not. These results suggest that T-cell exhaustion may be mainly associated with PTLD development, while immune suppression by Tregs may be dominant in enhanced progression of PTLD following disease occurrence.

Long-term exposure to monoclonal anti-TNF is associated with an increased risk of lymphoma in BAFF-transgenic mice

The impact of treatment on the risk of lymphoma in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is unclear. Here, we aimed to assess if the risk of lymphoma differs according to the type of tumor necrosis factor inhibitor (TNFi), comparing monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies to the soluble TNF receptor. We used B cell activating factor belonging to the TNF family (BAFF)-transgenic (Tg) mice as a model of autoimmunity-associated lymphoma. Six-month-old BAFF-Tg mice were treated with TNFi for 12 months. Histological examination of the spleen, assessment of the cellular composition of the spleen by flow cytometry and assessment of B cell clonality were performed at euthanasia. Crude mortality and incidence of lymphoma were significantly higher in mice treated with monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies compared to both controls and mice treated with the soluble TNF receptor, even at a high dose. Flow cytometry analysis revealed decreased splenic macrophage infiltration in mice treated with monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies. Overall, this study demonstrates, for the first time, that a very prolonged treatment with monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies increase the risk of lymphoma in B cell-driven autoimmunity. These data suggest a closer monitoring for lymphoma development in patients suffering from B cell-driven autoimmune disease with long-term exposure to monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies.

Dynamic changes in peripheral blood lymphocyte subset counts and functions in patients with diffuse large B cell lymphoma during chemotherapy

Background

This study aimed to analyze the lymphocyte subsets, their activities and their dynamic changes during immunochemotherapy in patients newly diagnosed with diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL).

Methods

Patients with DLBCL (n = 33) were included in the present study. Their peripheral lymphocyte subsets, phenotypes and functions were detected using flow cytometry. The dynamic results of lymphocyte activities were available for 18 patients.

Results

Compared with healthy controls (HCs), the counts of CD3⁺, CD4⁺, and CD8⁺ T cells as well as those NK cells decreased in patients newly diagnosed with DLBCL, mainly attributed to patients with high risk of prognosis assessed by International Prognostic Index (IPI) score. Lymphocyte counts didn’t present significant difference between high risk (IPI scores 3–5) and low risk patients (IPI scores 0–2), but CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells expressed higher levels of CD28 and HLA-DR, respectively, in patients with IPI score ranging from 3 to 5. Patients at high risk harbored higher percentage of regulatory T cells (Tregs), and their CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells produced lower levels of IFN-γ, reflecting an impaired cellular immune response. The dynamic changes of lymphocyte numbers and functions during treatment were further investigated. Total counts of CD3⁺, CD4⁺, CD8⁺ T and NK cells progressively decreased because of the cytotoxicity of chemotherapy and then gradually recovered after six cycles treatment (rituximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisone, R-CHOP). The functions of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells recovered by the end of two cycles R-CHOP treatment, although NK cell function was not significantly affected throughout treatment. These results suggest that the counts and functions of lymphocytes are significantly decreased in patients with DLBCL, particularly those of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells.

Conclusions

The absolute counts and functions of CD4⁺, CD8⁺ T cells, which were significantly lower in patients with DLBCL, gradually recovered after effective treatment. Therefore, combined detection of T cell counts and functions are critically important for administering effective personalized immunotherapy as well as for identifying new prognostic markers or DLBCL.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-01978-w.

Role of Microenvironment in Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma: Understanding the Composition and Biology

Lymphoma microenvironment is a dynamic and well-orchestrated network of various immune and stromal cells that is indispensable for tumor cell survival, growth, migration, immune escape, and drug resistance. Recent progress has enhanced our knowledge of the pivotal role of microenvironment in lymphomagenesis. Understanding the characteristics, functions, and contributions of various components of the tumor niche, along with its bidirectional interactions with tumor cells, is paramount. It offers the potential to identify new therapeutic targets with the ability to restore antitumor immune surveillance and eliminate the protumoral factors contributed by the tumor niche.

A prognostic immune risk score for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

We constructed a prognostic score for persons with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) based on infiltrating immune cells. Data of 956 consecutive subjects were retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus database and assigned to training (GSE10846, n = 305) or validation (GSE87371 n = 206 and GSE117556 n = 445 combined) cohorts. Proportions of non-lymphoma cells in the sample were inferred using the ESTIMATE algorithm. An immune risk score was constructed comprised of eight types of non-lymphoma immune cells calculated using the CIBERSORT algorithm. Five-year survival of subjects with an immune risk score ≤ 0·45 in the training cohort was better than that of subjects with a score > 0·45 (hazard ratio [HR] = 3·99; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2·74, 5·82; P < 0·001). HR in the validation cohort was HR = 2·17 (1·47, 3·21; P < 0·001). Enrichment analyses indicated correlations with genes controlling immune-related biological processes and pathways. A nomogram comprised of the immune risk score and most covariates including age, lactate dehydrogenase concentration (LDH), lymphoma-type (germinal centre B cell [GCB] versus non-GCB), Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status (ECOG-PS) and rituximab therapy had a C-statistic of 0·76 compared with C-statistics of 0·69 and 0·69 for the International Prognostic Index (IPI) and Revised International Prognostic Index (R-IPI). These data indicate the immune risk score is an accurate, independent survival predictor in persons with DLBCL.

High levels of Tim-3+Foxp3+Treg cells in the tumor microenvironment is a prognostic indicator of poor survival of diffuse large B cell lymphoma patients

Foxp3⁺Treg cells display phenotypic and functional heterogeneity, which express high levels of T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 (Tim-3) in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of colorectal and lung cancer. High abundance of Tim-3⁺Foxp3⁺Treg (TFT) cells are associated with poor prognosis in these patients. However, the expression patterns and roles of TFT cells in TME of diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) remain to be established. Double immunofluorescence and flow cytometry analyses were employed to investigate TFT cell enrichment in paraffin-embedded fresh tumor tissues from patients with DLBCL. Spearman's or Pearson's correlation and Kaplan-Meier survival analyses were further applied to decide the prognostic value of TFT cell levels in DLBCL. The IL-10-secreting function of TFT cells in vitro was examined via flow cytometry and ELISA. Our results showed for the first time that TFT cells are highly enriched in TME of DLBCL patients and associated with predictions of poor prognoses. TFT cell-induced secretion of IL-10 in the TME was suppressed by an anti-Tim-3 antibody in vitro. In conclusion, high abundance of TFT cells in the TME is predictive of poor outcomes of DLBCL. TFT cells promote DLBCL development partly by secreting IL-10 in the TME. Anti-Tim-3 antibodies (that block IL-10 secretion) may present an effective therapeutic agent for DLBCL.

Infiltration of CD163-, PD-L1- and FoxP3-positive cells adversely affects outcome in patients with mantle cell lymphoma independent of established risk factors

We characterised patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) with poor prognosis based on differences in immune infiltration. Different expressions of the tumour cell markers Cyclin D1 and sex-determining region Y-box transcription factor 11 (SOX11), and the immune markers cluster of differentiation 3 (CD3), CD4, CD8, CD25, forkhead box protein P3 (FoxP3), T-box transcription factor TBX21 (T-bet), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), programmed-death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and CD163 were investigated for all-cause mortality in 282 patients with MCL and time-to-progression (TTP) in 106 clinical trial patients. With increasing age, a significantly lower infiltration of CD3⁺ T lymphocytes was seen. T-cell infiltration was independent of cellular tumour antigen p53 (p53) expression, Ki-67, morphology and frequency of tumour cells. The all-cause mortality was higher in patients with PD-L1-expression above cut-off [hazard ratio (HR) 1·97, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1·18-3·25, adjusted for sex and MCL International Prognostic Index (MIPI)] and a higher frequency of CD163⁺ cells (continuously, HR 1·51, 95% CI 1·03-2·23, adjusting for age, sex, morphology, Ki-67 and p53). In patients treated within the Nordic Lymphoma Group MCL2/3 trials, TTP was shorter in patients with a higher frequency of FoxP3⁺ cells (HR 3·22, 95% CI 1·40-7·43) and CD163⁺ cells (HR 6·09, 95% CI 1·84-20·21), independent of sex and MIPI. When combined a higher frequency of CD163⁺ macrophages and PD-L1⁺ cells or high CD163⁺ macrophages and FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells indicated worse outcome independent of established risk factors. The T-cell infiltrate was in turn independent of molecular characteristics of the malignant cells and decreased with age.

Identification of novel prognosis-related genes in the endometrial cancer immune microenvironment

The incidence of endometrial cancer is increasing each year, and treatment effects are poor for patients with advanced and specific subtypes. Exploring immune infiltration-related factors in endometrial cancer can aid in the prognosis of patients and provide new immunotherapy targets. We downloaded immune metagene and functional data of patients with different subtypes of endometrial cancer from The Cancer Genome Atlas database and selected the lymphocyte-specific kinase (LCK) metagene as a representative genetic marker of the immune microenvironment in endometrial cancer. The results showed that LCK metagene expression is related to the prognosis of patients with endometrioid endometrial adenocarcinoma subtypes and highly correlated with the PTEN and PIK3CA mutational status. A search for LCK-related modules returned seven independent genetic predictors of survival in patients with endometrial cancer. The TIMER algorithm showed that the expression of these seven genes was positively correlated with the infiltration levels of six types of immune cells. The diagnostic value of these markers was validated using real-time quantitative PCR and immunohistochemical methods. Our results identified CD74, HLA-DRB5, CD52, HLA-DPB1 and HLA-DRB1 as possible valuable genetic markers for the diagnosis and prognosis of endometrial cancer and provided a theoretical basis for immunotherapy targets for its clinical treatment.

B Cells versus T Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment of Malignant Lymphomas. Are the Lymphocytes Playing the Roles of Muhammad Ali versus George Foreman in Zaire 1974?

Malignant lymphomas are a heterogeneous group of malignancies that develop both in nodal and extranodal sites. The different tissues involved and the highly variable clinicopathological characteristics are linked to the association between the lymphoid neoplastic cells and the tissues they infiltrate. The immune system has developed mechanisms to protect the normal tissue from malignant growth. In this review, we aim to explain how T lymphocyte-driven control is linked to tumor development and describe the tumor-suppressive components of the resistant framework. This manuscript brings forward a new insight with regard to intercellular and intracellular signaling, the immune microenvironment, the impact of therapy, and its predictive implications. A better understanding of the key components of the lymphoma environment is important to properly assess the role of both B and T lymphocytes, as well as their interplay, just as two legendary boxers face each other in a heavyweight title final, as was the case of Ali versus Foreman.

Aberrant peripheral blood CD4+ CD25+ FOXP3+ regulatory T cells/T helper-17 number is associated with the outcome of patients with lymphoma

Little is known about the clinical significance of the peripheral blood CD4⁺ CD25⁺ FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) and T helper-17 (Th17) cells in lymphoma patients. In this study, the prognostic and clinical significance of peripheral blood Tregs and Th17 cells were evaluated in lymphoma patients during different phases. The frequency of Tregs and Th17 lymphocytes was measured by flow cytometry method in 47 classical Hodgkin's lymphoma (cHL) and 48 diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) patients. Our results showed that the frequency of Tregs and absolute Treg count was significantly reduced in relapsed patients compared to patients at the remission phase, as well as with newly diagnosed untreated patients in both groups. Patients who reached complete remission had elevated frequency of CD4⁺ FOXP3⁺ lymphocytes, Tregs, absolute Treg count, Treg/CD4 and Treg/Th17 ratio in the cHL group and CD4⁺ CD25⁺ cells in DLBCL group. The frequency of Tregs, absolute Treg count and Treg/Th17 ratio in cHL patients and CD4⁺ FOXP3⁺ and CD4⁺ CD25⁺ cells in DLBCL patients positively associated with survival rate. Moreover, the percentage of Tregs and absolute Treg count positively correlated with white blood cell, platelet count and ESR level in cHL patients and with white blood cell count in DLBCL patients. The initial number of Tregs/Th17 cells and also the Treg/Th17 ratio was not associated with changes in disease-free survival (DFS) in both groups. Therefore, higher frequency of peripheral blood Tregs and Treg/Th17 ratio might be associated with a favorable outcome in lymphoma patients, better response to chemotherapy and lower rate of relapse.

Immune landscape in Burkitt lymphoma reveals M2-macrophage polarization and correlation between PD-L1 expression and non-canonical EBV latency program

BACKGROUND

The Tumor Microenviroment (TME) is a complex milieu that is increasingly recognized as a key factor in multiple stages of disease progression and responses to therapy as well as escape from immune surveillance. However, the precise contribution of specific immune effector and immune suppressor components of the TME in Burkitt lymphoma (BL) remains poorly understood.

METHODS

In this paper, we applied the computational algorithm CIBERSORT to Gene Expression Profiling (GEP) datasets of 40 BL samples to draw a map of immune and stromal components of TME. Furthermore, by multiple immunohistochemistry (IHC) and multispectral immunofluorescence (IF), we investigated the TME of additional series of 40 BL cases to evaluate the role of the Programmed Death-1 and Programmed Death Ligand-1 (PD-1/PD-L1) immune checkpoint axis.

RESULTS

Our results indicate that M2 polarized macrophages are the most prominent TME component in BL. In addition, we investigated the correlation between PD-L1 and latent membrane protein-2A (LMP2A) expression on tumour cells, highlighting a subgroup of BL cases characterized by a non-canonical latency program of EBV with an activated PD-L1 pathway.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our study analysed the TME in BL and identified a tolerogenic immune signature highlighting new potential therapeutic targets.

A four-methylated mRNA signature-based risk score system predicts survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

Evidence suggests that altered DNA methylation plays a causative role in the pathogenesis of various cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Thus, methylated differently expressed genes (MDEGs) could potentially serve as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in HCC. In the present study, screening four genomics profiling datasets (GSE62232, GSE84402, GSE73003 and GSE57956) enabled us to identify a total of 148 MDEGs. A signature was then established based on the top four MDEGs (BRCA1, CAD, CDC20 and RBM8A). Taking clinical variables into consideration, we constructed a risk score system consisting of the four-MDEG signature and the patients' clinical features, which was predictive of prognosis in HCC. The prognostic value of the HCC risk score system was confirmed using TCGA HCC samples. The scores were then used to construct a nomogram, performance of which was evaluated using Harrel's concordance index (C-index) and a calibration curve. The signature-based nomogram for prediction of overall survival in HCC patients exhibited good performance and was superior to traditional staging systems (C-index: 0.676 vs 0.629, P< 0.05). We have thus established a novel risk score system that is predictive of prognosis and is a potentially useful guide for personalized treatment of HCC patients.

Impact and Intricacies of Bone Marrow Microenvironment in B-cell Lymphomas: From Biology to Therapy

Lymphoma, a group of widely prevalent hematological malignancies of lymphocyte origin, has become the focus of significant clinical research due to their high propensity for refractory/relapsed (R/R) disease, leading to poor prognostic outcomes. The complex molecular circuitry in lymphomas, especially in the aggressive phenotypes, has made it difficult to find a therapeutic option that can salvage R/R disease. Furthermore, the association of lymphomas with the Bone Marrow (BM) microenvironment has been found to portend worse outcomes in terms of heightened chances of relapse and acquired resistance to chemotherapy. This review assesses the current therapy options in three distinct types of lymphomas: diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma and mantle cell lymphoma. It also explores the role of the BM tumor microenvironment as a secure 'niche' for lymphoma cells to grow, proliferate and survive. It further evaluates potential mechanisms through which the tumor cells can establish molecular connections with the BM cells to provide pro-tumor benefits, and discusses putative therapeutic strategies for disrupting the BM-lymphoma cell communication.

Simultaneous occurrence of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: case report and literature review

Background

Patients with lymphoma are at risk for developing pulmonary opportunistic infections due to immunocompromise. However, clinical reports of concurrent lymphoma and opportunistic infection at presentation are rare and often confined to single cases. A delayed diagnosis of either opportunistic infection or lymphoma usually occurs in this complex situation. Here, we report such a case and analyse 18 similar cases searched in the PubMed database to deepen clinicians’ understanding.

Case presentation

A 48-year-old man presented with a 3-month history of fever, cough and emaciation. High-resolution computed tomography revealed bilateral cavitating lesions of different sizes. Aspergillus fumigatus complex was identified from a bronchoalveolar lavage fluid culture. However, antifungal treatment combined with multiple rounds of antibacterial therapy was unsuccessful, and the patient’s lung lesions continued to deteriorate. Multiple puncture biopsies finally confirmed the coexistence of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Despite the initiation of combination chemotherapy, the patient died of progressive respiratory failure.

Conclusions

Synchronous pulmonary lymphoma and simultaneous opportunistic infection is rare and usually lacks specific clinical and imaging manifestations. Lymphoma should be considered as part of the differential diagnosis of patients with an opportunistic infection when treatment fails or other symptoms are present that could be considered “atypical” for the condition. Tissue biopsy is the gold standard, and multiple biopsies are essential for making the final diagnosis and should be performed upon early suspicion.

High intratumoural galectin-1 expression predicts adverse outcome in ALK- ALCL and CD30+ PTCL-NOS

Galectin-1 (Gal-1) has been associated with adverse prognosis in several cancers including lymphoma entities with CD30 expression. However, Gal-1 expression has not been systematically assessed in peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCL). Specimens from 169 nodal PTCL were assessed for intratumoural Gal-1 expression by immunohistochemistry. Overall survival (OS) in groups exhibiting high and low Gal-1 expression was compared in the cohort and in a subset analysis of CD30-positive PTCL only. Gal-1 expression was also correlated with biomarkers of the tumour microenvironment. No significant difference in OS based on Gal-1 expression was observed in the entire PTCL cohort. However, in the CD30-positive cohort, patients with high Gal-1 levels had significantly poorer outcome (5 years OS 10%, 95% confidence interval CI, 1-36) than their low Gal-1 counterparts (5 years OS 48%, 95% CI, 30-64, P = .021). In univariate analyses age 60 or younger, non-elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and performance score less than 2 correlated with superior survival but high Gal-1 expression significantly predicted adverse outcome at both univariate (HR 2.5, 95% CI, 1.1-5.7, P = .026) and multivariate levels (HR 3.2, 95% CI, 1.2-8.5, P = .017). Tumours with high Gal-1 had few cytotoxic T cells in the tumour microenvironment. High intratumoural Gal-1 expression before therapeutic intervention correlates with adverse outcome in nodal CD30⁺ , ALK^- PTCL patients.

Epigenetic abnormalities of classical Hodgkin lymphoma and its effect on immune escape

Classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) is a particular kind of malignant tumour that originates from the B cells. The malignant phenotype of cHL is, at least in part, maintained by epigenetic aberrations, which primarily consist of abnormal histone methylation and acetylation. Progress has been made in clinical trials concerning the histone deacetylases inhibitors (HDACis) in cHL. Also, some demethylation regimens could serve the purpose of preventing and treating tumours. Programmed death-ligand receptor 1 (PD-L1, CD274) inhibitors or apoptosis receptor 1 (PD-1, CD279) inhibitors are used in treating patients with relapsed cHL in recent years. Academic researches indicated that PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors, including nivolumab and pembrolizumab, demonstrate remarkable activity in relapsed cHL. In addition, in recent years, a close association between epigenetic aberrations and immune escape has been explored in cHL. DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitors, HDACis, and immune checkpoint blockade exhibit synergistic effects. Thus, this review aims to provide an overview on the epigenetic abnormalities of cHL and its effect on immune escape, in order to explore the optimal combination approach to treat the disease. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: Cancer Statistics 2018 reported that more than 8000 new cases of Hodgkin lymphoma were diagnosed. In recent years, PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors for cHL have been utilized, and the therapeutic strategies of HDACis combined with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors have been raised. It is critical for improving the efficacy and decreasing the toxicity in treating the patients with cHL.

Differential expression of individual transcript variants of PD-1 and PD-L2 genes on Th-1/Th-2 status is guaranteed for prognosis prediction in PCNSL

In current molecular medicine, next-generation sequencing (NGS) for transcript variant detection and multivariable analyses are valid methods for evaluating gene expression, cancer mechanisms, and prognoses of patients. We conducted RNA-sequencing on samples from patients with primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL) using NGS and performed multivariable analysis on gene expression data and correlations focused on Th-1/Th-2 helper T cell balance and immune checkpoint to identify diagnosis/prognosis markers and cancer immune pathways in PCNSL. We selected 84 transcript variants to limit the analysis range for Th-1/Th-2 balance and stimulatory and inhibitory checkpoints in 31 PCNSLs. Of these, 21 highly-expressed transcript variants were composed of the formulas for prognoses based on Th-1/Th-2 status and checkpoint activities. Using formulas, Th-1^low, Th-2^high, and stimulatory checkpoint^high resulted in poor prognoses. Further, Th-1^highTh-2^low was associated with good prognoses. On the other hand, CD40-001^high and CD70-001^high as stimulatory genes, and LAG3-001^high, PDCD1 (PD-1)-001/002/003^high, and PDCD1LG2 (PD-L2)-201^low as inhibitory genes were associated with poor prognoses. Interestingly, Th-1^highTh-2^low and Th-1^lowTh-2^high were correlated with stimulatory checkpoint^low as CD70-001^low and inhibitory checkpoint^low as HAVCR2 (TIM-3)-001^low and PDCD1LG2-001/201^low, respectively. Focused on the inhibitory checkpoint, specific variants of CD274 (PD-L1)-001 and PDCD1-002 served severe hazard ratios. In particular, PDCD1-002^high by a cut off score was associated with poor prognoses, in addition to PDCD1-001/003^high, PDCD1LG2-201^low, and LAG3-001^high. These results mainly suggest that expression of transcript variants of PDCD1 and PDCD1LG2 on the Th-1/Th-2 balance enable prognostic prediction in PCNSL. This study provides insights for development of molecular target therapies and identification of diagnosis/prognosis markers in PCNSL.

Prognostic role of non-neoplastic lymphocytes in lymph node aspirates from dogs with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated with chemo-immunotherapy

Dogs with Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) benefit from the addition of active immunotherapy to traditional chemotherapy. We hypothesized that immune cells within neoplastic lymph nodes (LNs) may play a role in the tumor pathobiology and treatment response. The present study describes the composition and prognostic role of non-neoplastic lymphocytes in LNs of 59 dogs with treatment-naive DLBCL receiving chemo-immunotherapy. The percentage of small non-neoplastic cells and of CD5+, CD21+, CD4+ and CD8+ small cells was recorded via flow cytometry. CD4+/CD8+ and CD5+/large CD21+ cell ratios were calculated. The likelihood of progression significantly diminished with increasing percentage of small cells, CD5+ and CD8+ small cells, and CD5+/large CD21+ cell ratio, with decreasing CD4+/CD8+ ratio and in non-anemic dogs. Active immunotherapy is more effective in dogs with higher percentage of non-neoplastic lymphocytes at diagnosis. We lay the ground for future studies assessing the role of the immune system in the pathobiology of canine DLBCL.

Extracellular Vesicles: New Players in Lymphomas

Lymphomas are heterogeneous diseases, and the term includes a number of histological subtypes that are characterized by different clinical behavior and molecular phenotypes. Valuable information on the presence of lymphoma cell-derived extracellular vesicles (LCEVs) in the bloodstream of patients suffering from this hematological cancer has recently been provided. In particular, it has been reported that the number and phenotype of LCEVs can both change as the disease progresses, as well as after treatment. Moreover, the role that LCEVs play in driving tumor immune escape has been reported. This makes LCEVs potential novel clinical tools for diagnosis, disease progression, and chemoresistance. LCEVs express surface markers and convey specific molecules in accordance with their cell of origin, which can be used as targets and thus lead to the development of specific therapeutics. This may be particularly relevant since circulating LCEVs are known to save lymphoma cells from anti-cluster of differentiation (CD)20-induced complement-dependent cytotoxicity. Therefore, effort should be directed toward investigating the feasibility of using LCEVs as predictive biomarkers of disease progression and/or response to treatment that can be translated to clinical use. The use of liquid biopsies in combination with serum EV quantification and cargo analysis have been also considered as potential approaches that can be pursued in the future. Upcoming research will also focus on the identification of specific molecular targets in order to generate vaccines and/or antibodies against LCEVs. Finally, the removal of circulating LCEVs has been proposed as a simple and non-invasive treatment approach. We herein provide an overview of the role of LCEVs in lymphoma diagnosis, immune tolerance, and drug resistance. In addition, alternative protocols that utilize LCEVs as therapeutic targets are discussed.