Insights Into Ferroptosis, a Novel Target for the Therapy of Cancer

Recent Advances in Nanomaterial-Mediated Cell Death for Cancer Therapy

Nanomedicine has shown great anticancer potential by disrupting redox homeostasis and increasing the levels of oxidative stress, but the therapeutic effect is limited by factors including the intrinsic self-protection mechanism of tumors. Cancer cell death can be induced by the exploration of different cell death mechanisms, such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, cuproptosis, and ferroptosis. The merging of nanotechnology with biomedicine has provided tremendous opportunities to construct cell death-based nanomedicine for innovative cancer therapy. Nanocarriers are not only used for the targeted delivery of cell death inducers, but also as therapeutic components to induce cell death to achieve efficient tumor treatment. This review focuses on seven cell death modalities mediated by nanomaterials, such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, cuprotosis, immunogenic cell death, and autophagy. The mechanisms of these seven cell death modalities are described in detail, as well as the preparation of nanomaterials that induce them and the mechanisms, they used to exert their effects. Finally, this work describes the potential future development based on the current knowledge related to cell death induced by nanomaterials.

Mechanisms and therapeutic targets of ferroptosis: Implications for nanomedicine design

Ferroptosis is a nonapoptotic form of cell death and differs considerably from the well-known forms of cell death in terms of cell morphology, genetics, and biochemistry. The three primary pathways for cell ferroptosis are system Xc-/glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), lipid metabolism, and ferric metabolism. Since the discovery of ferroptosis, mounting evidence has revealed its critical regulatory role in several diseases, especially as a novel potential target for cancer therapy, thereby attracting increasing attention in the fields of tumor biology and anti-tumor therapy. Accordingly, broad prospects exist for identifying ferroptosis as a potential therapeutic target. In this review, we aimed to systematically summarize the activation and defense mechanisms of ferroptosis, highlight the therapeutic targets, and discuss the design of nanomedicines for ferroptosis regulation. In addition, we opted to present the advantages and disadvantages of current ferroptosis research and provide an optimistic vision of future directions in related fields. Overall, we aim to provide new ideas for further ferroptosis research and inspire new strategies for disease diagnosis and treatment.

Novel ferroptosis signature for improving prediction of prognosis and indicating gene targets from single-cell level in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Background

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is one of the most prevalent kinds of cancers. Therefore, there is a pressing need to create a new risk scoring model to personalize the prognosis of OSCC patients and screen for patient-specific therapeutic agents and molecular targets.

Methods

Firstly, A series of bioinformatics was performed to construct a novel ferroptosis-related prognostic model; Further, drug sensitivity analysis was used to screen for specific therapeutic agents for OSCC; Single-cell analysis was employed to investigate the enrichment of FRDEGs (ferroptosis-related differentially expressed genes) in the OSCC microenvironment; Finally, various experiments were conducted to screen and validate molecular therapeutic targets for OSCC.

Results

In this study, we constructed a novel 10-FRDEGs risk scoring model. Base on the risk scoring model, we founded three potential chemotherapeutic agents for OSCC: 5Z)-7-Oxozeaenol, AT-7519, KIN001-266; In addition, FRDEGs were enriched in the epithelial cells of OSCC. Finally, we found that CA9 and CAV1 could regulate OSCC proliferation, migration and ferroptosis in vitro.

Conclusion

A novel 10-FRDEGs risk scoring model can predict the prognosis of patients with OSCC.Further,5Z)-7-Oxozeaenol, AT-7519, KIN001-266 are potential chemotherapeutic agents for OSCC.Moreover, we identified CA9、CAV1 as potential molecular target for the treatment of OSCC.Our findings provide new directions for prognostic assessment and precise treatment of oral cell squamous carcinoma.

Interplay of Ferroptosis and Cuproptosis in Cancer: Dissecting Metal-Driven Mechanisms for Therapeutic Potentials

Iron (Fe) and copper (Cu), essential transition metals, play pivotal roles in various cellular processes critical to cancer biology, including cell proliferation, mitochondrial respiration, distant metastases, and oxidative stress. The emergence of ferroptosis and cuproptosis as distinct forms of non-apoptotic cell death has heightened their significance, particularly in connection with these metal ions. While initially studied separately, recent evidence underscores the interdependence of ferroptosis and cuproptosis. Studies reveal a link between mitochondrial copper accumulation and ferroptosis induction. This interconnected relationship presents a promising strategy, especially for addressing refractory cancers marked by drug tolerance. Harnessing the toxicity of iron and copper in clinical settings becomes crucial. Simultaneous targeting of ferroptosis and cuproptosis, exemplified by the combination of sorafenib and elesclomol-Cu, represents an intriguing approach. Strategies targeting mitochondria further enhance the precision of these approaches, providing hope for improving treatment outcomes of drug-resistant cancers. Moreover, the combination of iron chelators and copper-lowering agents with established therapeutic modalities exhibits a synergy that holds promise for the augmentation of anti-tumor efficacy in various malignancies. This review elaborates on the complex interplay between ferroptosis and cuproptosis, including their underlying mechanisms, and explores their potential as druggable targets in both cancer research and clinical settings.

Metal ions as effectual tools for cancer with traditional Chinese medicine

Malignant tumor has become a major threat affecting human health, and is one of the main causes of human death. Recent studies have shown that many traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) have good anti-tumor activity, which may improve the therapeutic effect of routine treatment and quality of life with lower toxicity. However, the efficacy of TCM alone for the treatment of tumors is limited. Metal ions are essential substances for maintaining normal physiological activities. This article summarized the multiple mechanisms in which metal ions are involved in the prevention and treatment of tumors in TCM.

Basic mechanisms and novel potential therapeutic targets for ferroptosis in acute myeloid leukemia

Ferroptosis is a form of cell death that is regulated by iron and characterized by the buildup of lipid peroxides (LPO) and subsequent rupture of the cell membrane. The molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis involve metabolic pathways related to iron, lipids, and amino acids, which contribute to the production of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS). In recent years, there has been increasing attention on the occurrence of ferroptosis in various diseases. Ferroptosis has been found to play a crucial role in cardiovascular diseases, digestive diseases, respiratory and immunological diseases, and particularly in malignancies. However, there is still a lack of studies on ferroptosis in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This paper provides a comprehensive review of the mechanism of ferroptosis and its regulatory molecules and therapeutic agents in AML. It also evaluates the relationship between ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs), non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), and prognosis to develop prognostic molecular models in AML. The study also explores the association between ferroptosis and immune infiltration in AML, to identify novel potential target regimens for AML.

Zooming in and out of ferroptosis in human disease

Ferroptosis is defined as an iron-dependent regulated form of cell death driven by lipid peroxidation. In the past decade, it has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases that together involve almost every organ of the body, including various cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, lung diseases, liver diseases, kidney diseases, endocrine metabolic diseases, iron-overload-related diseases, orthopedic diseases and autoimmune diseases. Understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and its regulatory pathways could provide additional strategies for the management of these disease conditions. Indeed, there are an expanding number of studies suggesting that ferroptosis serves as a bona-fide target for the prevention and treatment of these diseases in relevant pre-clinical models. In this review, we summarize the progress in the research into ferroptosis and its regulatory mechanisms in human disease, while providing evidence in support of ferroptosis as a target for the treatment of these diseases. We also discuss our perspectives on the future directions in the targeting of ferroptosis in human disease.

Discovery of a Potent Chloroacetamide GPX4 Inhibitor with Bioavailability to Enable Target Engagement in Mice, a Potential Tool Compound for Inducing Ferroptosis In Vivo

Compounds that inhibit glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) hold promise as cancer therapeutics in their ability to induce a form of nonapoptotic cell death called ferroptosis. Our research identified 24, a structural analog of the potent GPX4 inhibitor RSL3, that has much better plasma stability (t_1/2 > 5 h in mouse plasma). The bioavailability of 24 provided efficacious plasma drug concentrations with IP dosing, thus enabling in vivo studies to assess tolerability and efficacy. An efficacy study in mouse using a GPX4-sensitive tumor model found that doses of 24 up to 50 mg/kg were tolerated for 20 days but had no effect on tumor growth, although partial target engagement was observed in tumor homogenate.

The role of lysosomes in metabolic and autoimmune diseases

Lysosomes are catabolic organelles that contribute to the degradation of intracellular constituents through autophagy and of extracellular components through endocytosis, phagocytosis and macropinocytosis. They also have roles in secretory mechanisms, the generation of extracellular vesicles and certain cell death pathways. These functions make lysosomes central organelles in cell homeostasis, metabolic regulation and responses to environment changes including nutrient stresses, endoplasmic reticulum stress and defects in proteostasis. Lysosomes also have important roles in inflammation, antigen presentation and the maintenance of long-lived immune cells. Their functions are tightly regulated by transcriptional modulation via TFEB and TFE3, as well as by major signalling pathways that lead to activation of mTORC1 and mTORC2, lysosome motility and fusion with other compartments. Lysosome dysfunction and alterations in autophagy processes have been identified in a wide variety of diseases, including autoimmune, metabolic and kidney diseases. Deregulation of autophagy can contribute to inflammation, and lysosomal defects in immune cells and/or kidney cells have been reported in inflammatory and autoimmune pathologies with kidney involvement. Defects in lysosomal activity have also been identified in several pathologies with disturbances in proteostasis, including autoimmune and metabolic diseases such as Parkinson disease, diabetes mellitus and lysosomal storage diseases. Targeting lysosomes is therefore a potential therapeutic strategy to regulate inflammation and metabolism in a variety of pathologies.

LINC01004-SPI1 axis-activated SIGLEC9 in tumor-associated macrophages induces radioresistance and the formation of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Radioresistance and immunosuppression remain the major obstacles in the anti-cancer treatments. This work studies the functions of sialic acid binding Ig like lectin 9 (SIGLEC9) and its related molecules in radioresistance and immunosuppression in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). The single-cell analysis showed that SIGLEC9 was mainly expressed on tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Monocytes-derived macrophages were co-cultured with ESCC cells and subjected to radiotherapy. High or low doses of radiotherapy induced SIGLEC9 upregulation and M2 polarization of TAMs. Artificial inhibition of SIGLEC9 in TAMs suppressed the radioresistance and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) in the co-cultured ESCC cells. Upstream molecules of SIGLEC9 were predicted via bioinformatics. LINC01004 recruited Spi-1 proto-oncogene (SPI1) in nucleus of TAMs to induce transcriptional activation of SIGLEC9. SIGLEC9 interacted with mucin 1 (MUC1). MUC1 overexpression in ESCCs induced M2 skewing of TAMs, enhanced radioresistance and immunosuppression, and promoted nuclear translocation of β-catenin to suppress radiotherapy-induced ferroptosis of ESCC cells. These effects were blocked upon SIGLEC9 suppression. In vitro results were reproduced in the animal models with xenograft tumors. Taken together, this study demonstrates that the LINC01004-SPI1 axis-activated SIGLEC9 in TAMs induces radioresistance and the formation of immunosuppressive TME in ESCC.

The 'stealth-bomber' paradigm for deciphering the tumour response to carbon-ion irradiation

Numerous studies have demonstrated the higher biological efficacy of carbon-ion irradiation (C-ions) and their ballistic precision compared with photons. At the nanometre scale, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by radiation and responsible for the indirect effects are differentially distributed according to the type of radiation. Photon irradiation induces a homogeneous ROS distribution, whereas ROS remain condensed in clusters in the C-ions tracks. Based on this linear energy transfer-dependent differential nanometric ROS distribution, we propose that the higher biological efficacy and specificities of the molecular response to C-ions rely on a 'stealth-bomber' effect. When biological targets are on the trajectories of the particles, the clustered radicals in the tracks are responsible for a 'bomber' effect. Furthermore, the low proportion of ROS outside the tracks is not able to trigger the cellular mechanisms of defence and proliferation. The ability of C-ions to deceive the cellular defence of the cancer cells is then categorised as a 'stealth' effect. This review aims to classify the biological arguments supporting the paradigm of the 'stealth-bomber' as responsible for the biological superiority of C-ions compared with photons. It also explains how and why C-ions will always be more efficient for treating patients with radioresistant cancers than conventional radiotherapy.

Gentian violet induces apoptosis and ferroptosis via modulating p53 and MDM2 in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common malignancies with limited curative options and poor prognosis. Gentian violet (GV) has recently been found to have anti-tumor properties with promising clinical applications. However, its anti-tumor effect and the underlying functional mechanisms in HCC have not been investigated. In this study, we found that GV induced ferroptosis and apoptosis, inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion in a dose-dependent manner in vitro, and significantly attenuated the growth of HCC in vivo. Both ferroptosis inhibitor Ferrostain-1 (Fer-1) and apoptosis inhibitor Z-VAD-KFM (Z-VAD) partially attenuated GV-induced growth-inhibitory effects, while combined treatment of Fer-1 and Z-VAD completely abolished GV's activities. Increased levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were detected after GV treatment. Interestingly, GV elevated the expression levels of both p53 and its negative regulator MDM2, which was dependent on the expression of the dehydrogenase/reductase protein Hep27. Simultaneously silencing both the MDM2 and p53 genes by siRNAs abolished ROS production and partially rescued the cell death induced by GV treatment. Our data demonstrate a GV-Hep27-MDM2-p53 signaling cascade that regulates ferroptosis and apoptosis. Furthermore, our findings provide insights into understanding the anti-tumor function of GV and present the basis of new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of HCC.

The Mechanisms of Ferroptosis and the Applications in Tumor Treatment: Enemies or Friends?

Ferroptosis, as a newly discovered non-apoptotic cell death mode, is beginning to be explored in different cancer. The particularity of ferroptosis lies in the accumulation of iron dependence and lipid peroxides, and it is different from the classical cell death modes such as apoptosis and necrosis in terms of action mode, biochemical characteristics, and genetics. The mechanism of ferroptosis can be divided into many different pathways, so it is particularly important to identify the key sites of ferroptosis in the disease. Herein, based on ferroptosis, we analyze the main pathways in detail. More importantly, ferroptosis is linked to the development of different systems of the tumor, providing personalized plans for the examination, treatment, and prognosis of cancer patients. Although some mechanisms and side effects of ferroptosis still need to be studied, it is still a promising method for cancer treatment.

Glycolysis-Related LINC02432/Hsa-miR-98–5p/HK2 Axis Inhibits Ferroptosis and Predicts Immune Infiltration, Tumor Mutation Burden, and Drug Sensitivity in Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) is a malignant cancer with high incidence and mortality. Glycometabolic rearrangements (aerobic glycolysis) is a hallmark of PAAD and contributes to tumorigenesis and progression through numerous mechanisms. This study aimed to identify a novel glycolysis-related lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA ceRNA signature in PAAD and explore its potential molecular function. We first calculated the glycolysis score for each PAAD patient by the ssGSEA algorithm and found that patients with higher hallmark glycolysis scores had poorer prognosis. Subsequently, we obtained a novel glycolysis-related LINC02432/hsa-miR-98–5p/HK2 axis from the TCGA and GEO databases using comprehensive bioinformatics analysis and developed a nomogram to predict overall survival. Furthermore, functional characterization analysis revealed that LINC02432/hsa-miR-98–5p/HK2 axis risk score was negatively correlated with ferroptosis. The tumor immune infiltration analysis suggested positive correlations between ceRNA risk score and infiltrated M0 macrophage levels in PAAD. Correlation analysis found that ceRNA risk scores were positively correlated with four chemokines (CXCL3, CXCL5, CXCL8 and CCL20) and one immune checkpoint gene (SIGLEC15). Meanwhile, tumor mutation burden (TMB), an indicator for predicting response to immunotherapy, was positively correlated with ceRNA risk score. Finally, the drug sensitivity analysis showed that the high-risk score patients might be more sensitive to EGFR, MEK and ERK inhibitors than low-risk score patients. In conclusion, our study suggested that LINC02432/hsa-miR-98–5p/HK2 axis may serve as a novel diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic target in PAAD treatment.