Tamarixinin A Alleviates Joint Destruction of Rheumatoid Arthritis by Blockade of MAPK and NF-κB Activation

Isolation, structural and bioactivities of polysaccharides from Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl.: A review

Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl. (A. roxburghii), a valuable herbal medicine in China, has great medicinal and edible value. Polysaccharides, as one of the main active components of A. roxburghii, comprise glucose, arabinose, xylose, galactose, rhamnose, and mannose in different molar ratios and glycosidic bond types. By varying the sources and extraction methods of A. roxburghii polysaccharides (ARPS), different structural characteristics and pharmacological activities can be elucidated. ARPS has been reported to exhibit antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, and immune regulation activities. This review summarizes the available literature on the extraction and purification methods, structural features, biological activities, and applications of ARPS. The shortcomings of the current research and potential focus in future studies are also highlighted. This review provides systematic and current information on ARPS to promote their further exploitation and application.

Antifatigue and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Cervus elaphus L., Angelica gigas Nakai, and Astragalus membranaceus Bunge Complex Extracts in Physically Fatigued Mice

Fatigue is a common complaint among people under stress, causing an array of negative effects on physical function. In this study, we investigated the antifatigue and anti-inflammatory effects of Cervus elaphus L., Angelica gigas Nakai, and Astragalus membranaceus Bunge complex extracts (CAA) using a treadmill stress test in animal models. The mice were administered various doses of CAA (50-200 mg/kg bw per day) once daily for 21 days. After exhaustive treadmill exercise, the running time of CAA-treated mice increased 1.5 times; fatigue-related biochemical parameters, including lactate dehydrogenase (∼30%), creatine kinase (∼20%), and proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β (∼10%), and IL-6 (∼10%) in the serum and muscle tissue were downregulated compared with those in exercised control mice. This study provides strong evidence for the prevention of CAA-induced inflammatory incidences mediated by the blockade of nuclear factor-κB activation. Collectively, our results indicate that CAA can alleviate symptoms of fatigue in mice as an effective anti-inflammatory agent.

Hydrolyzable Tannins in the Management of Th1, Th2 and Th17 Inflammatory-Related Diseases

Plants rich in hydrolyzable tannins were traditionally used all over the world for a variety of chronic inflammatory disorders, including arthritis, colitis, and dermatitis. However, the knowledge of their immunological targets is still limited though fundamental for their rational use in phytotherapy. The recent advances regarding the pathogenesis of inflammatory-based diseases represent an opportunity to elucidate the pharmacological mechanism of plant-derived metabolites with immunomodulatory activity. This review collects recent articles regarding the role of hydrolyzable tannins and their gut metabolites in Th1, Th2, and Th17 inflammatory responses. In line with the traditional use, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), psoriasis, atopic dermatitis (AD), and asthma were the most investigated diseases. A substantial body of in vivo studies suggests that, beside innate response, hydrolyzable tannins may reduce the levels of Th-derived cytokines, including IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-4, following oral administration. The mode of action is multitarget and may involve the impairment of inflammatory transcription factors (NF-κB, NFAT, STAT), enzymes (MAPKs, COX-2, iNOS), and ion channels. However, their potential impact on pathways with renewed interest for inflammation, such as JAK/STAT, or the modulation of the gut microbiota demands dedicate studies.

Two new sesquiterpene dimers isolated from the roots of Saussurea lappa (Yunmuxiang)

Two new sesquiterpene dimers, lappadimers A and B, were isolated from the roots of Saussurea lappa (Yunmuxiang). Their structures were established on the basis of spectroscopic methods. They were found to have potential anti-inflammatory activity at 10 µM and could reduce LPS-induced NO levels in murine macrophage, with inhibitory rates of 67% and 47%, respectively.

Berberis lycium fruit extract and its phytoconstituents berberine and rutin mitigate collagen-CFA-induced arthritis (CIA) via improving GSK3β/STAT/Akt/MAPKs/NF-κB signaling axis mediated oxi-inflammation and joint articular damage in murine model

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a chronic auto-immune disease, is often result of persistent and misdirectional inflammation and cannot be effectually resolved by single-target selective drugs. Present study attempted to uncover anti-arthritic efficacy and governing molecular mechanism of BLFE and its phytoconstituents berberine and rutin, with focus on dysregulated oxi-inflammation and structural integrity during articular damage using Collagen II-CFA-induced RA mice model. NMR-based phytometabolomic analysis revealed presence of phenolics and alkaloids such as berberine and rutin. BLFE, rutin and berberine remarkably mitigated Collagen II-CFA-induced disease severity index, articular damage, immune cells influx and pannus formation. An effective decrease in levels of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-13, IL-17, MMPs, RORγt, Ob-cadherin, Cox-2, iNOS and enhancement in IL-10, IL-4 and IL-5, BMP-6/7 was observed in BLFE, rutin and berberine treatments. Molecular mechanistic analysis demonstrated reduction in expression of p-STAT-1/3, p-PI3K, p-Akt, p-JNK, p-p38, p-IκB, p-NF-κB and β-catenin via BLFE, rutin and berberine. Furthermore, reduced activation of p-ERK and p-GSK3β and enhanced splenic Tregs was only noticed in BLFE and berberine. Thus, the signifying presence of these phytoconstituents could contribute to the above-mentioned findings. These findings imply that BLFE could be beneficial for assuaging deleterious aspects of RA mediated via perturbed inflammation.

Penfluridol targets acid sphingomyelinase to inhibit TNF signaling and is therapeutic against inflammatory autoimmune diseases

BACKGROUND

Penfluridol, isolated from an FDA-approved small-molecule drug library as an inhibitor of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)-stimulated NF-κB activation, is clinically used to treat chronic schizophrenia and related disorders. This study is aimed to investigate the therapeutic effect of penfluridol on TNFα-stimulated inflammatory autoimmune diseases, particularly inflammatory arthritis.

METHODS

Various in vitro studies to confirm the inhibitory effect of penfluridol on TNFα-induced NF-κB activity in bone marrow-derived macrophages or Raw 264.7 macrophage cell line. In vivo studies assessed the therapeutic effects of penfluridol in various disease models, including TNFα transgenic mice, collagen-induced arthritis, DSS-induced colitis, and TNBS-induced colitis. Identification and characterization of the binding of penfluridol to acid sphingomyelinase using bioinformatics and drug affinity responsive target stability assay. Acid sphingomyelinase activity assays to reveal penfluridol-mediated inhibition of acid sphingomyelinase activity. siRNA knockdown experiments to illustrate the dependence of penfluridol's anti-TNF activity on acid sphingomyelinase.

RESULTS

Penfluridol effectively inhibited TNFα-induced NF-κB activation in vitro and alleviated the severity of arthritis and colitis in vivo. Mechanistic studies revealed that penfluridol bound to acid sphingomyelinase and inhibited its activation. In addition, knockdown of acid sphingomyelinase largely abolished the inhibitory effects of penfluridol on TNFα-induced inflammatory cytokine production. Furthermore, penfluridol suppressed the differentiation of spleen naive CD4+T cells to TH1 and TH17 and inhibited M1 macrophage polarization.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the rationale for the possible innovative use of penfluridol as a newly identified small-molecule drug for TNFα-driven diseases, such as inflammatory arthritis and colitis.

Anti-arthritic activity of the flavonoids fraction of ivy leaves (Hedera helix L.) standardized extract in adjuvant induced arthritis model in rats in relation to its metabolite profile using LC/MS

Ivy leaves (Hedera helix) is a traditional plant used for common cold, cough, and bronchial disorders and can be used for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) as an attempt in alternative medicine. RA is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by its increasing frequency and adverse consequences. There is an urgent need for a long-term therapy that has favorable biological effects and is less expensive than the already authorized synthetic medicines. This study aimed to determine the anti-arthritic potentials of Hedera helix with determination of the bioactive fraction and discovery of its second-generation metabolites by means of LC/MS. The total ivy ethanolic extract (TIE-E), saponins fraction (Sap-F) and flavonoids fraction (Flav-F) were investigated for their in-vitro anti-arthritic effects and in-vivo by Adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) using Complete Freund's Adjuvant (0.1 mL, CFA) intradermal relative to the usual dose of ibuprofen (5 mg/kg). We examined the physical alterations, rheumatoid biomarkers, cytokines that cause and inhibit inflammation, markers of oxidative stress, hyaluronidase and β-glucuronidase enzyme activity. Each paw's histopathology was also evaluated. The chemical profiles of TIE-E were studied using LC/MS in both positive and negative ionization modes. TIE-E (200 mg/kg) and Flav-F (100 mg/kg) significantly (P < 0.05) lowered the edema of the paws, serum immunological indicators, inflammatory cytokines, degenerative enzymes, and indicators of reactive oxygen species with increasing in the anti-inflammatory cytokines. Our findings suggest that extracts of ivy leaves might be used effectively to treat rheumatoid arthritis, where its flavonoid content is responsible for that, and it is able to repress biochemical, oxidative, and pathological changes associated with (AIA) Adjuvant-induced arthritis.

Traditional herbal medicine: Therapeutic potential in rheumatoid arthritis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease influenced by diverse endogenous and exogenous factors. It is characterized by cartilage and bone destruction. The current conventional allopathic therapy is expensive and carries adverse side effects. Recently, there were some ethnopharmacological studies on RA including anti-RA effects and therapeutic targets of distinct dosage forms of traditional herbal medicines (THMs).

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review provides a brief overview of the current understanding of the potential pharmacological mechanisms of THMs (active constituents, extracts and prescriptions) in RA. This study is intended to provide comprehensive information and reference for exploring new therapeutic strategies of THMs in the RA treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This review captured scientific literatures invivo and vitro experiments on effects of anti-RA THMs published between 2016 and 2021 from journals and electronic databases (e.g. PubMed, Elsevier, Science Direct, Web of Science and Google Scholar). Relevant literatures were searched and analyzed by using keywords such as 'rheumatoid arthritis AND traditional herbal medicines', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND immune cells', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND inflammation', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND miRNA', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND Angiogenesis', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND oxidative stress', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND osteoclasts', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND CIA model', 'rheumatoid arthritis AND AA model' AND 'rheumatoid arthritis herbal prescription'.

RESULTS

Experiments in vitro and in vivo jointly demonstrated the potential of THMs in the RA treatment. There are plentiful therapeutic targets in RA. THMs and active ingredients could alleviate RA symptoms through different therapeutic targets, such as immunoregulation, inflammation, fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs), microRNAs (miRNAs), angiogenesis, oxidative stress, osteoclasts and multiple targets interaction. Anti-RA THMs, active ingredients and prescriptions through corresponding therapeutic targets were summarized and classified.

CONCLUSIONS

Flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids and triterpenes of THMs are identified as the main components to ameliorate RA. Regulation of different and multiple related therapeutic targets by THMs and their active ingredients were associated with greater therapeutic benefits, among which inflammation is the main therapeutic target. Nonetheless, further studies are required to unravel the complexities and in-depth mechanisms of THMs in alleviating RA.

Fascin1 mediated release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and invasion/migration in rheumatoid arthritis via the STAT3 pathway

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, multi-factorial disease characterized by Synovial hyperplasia, chronic inflammation, and autoimmune reaction. Fascin1 overexpression has been implicated in cancer, immune, and inflammatory diseases. However, the relationship between Fascin1 and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has not yet been determined. We investigated whether Fascin1 could modulate pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and the proliferation, apoptosis, and invasion/migration of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA-FLSs). Fascin 1 was suppressed with a short interfering (si)RNA approach. Functional analysis contained MTT assay, flow cytometry,Transwell™ assays, wound healing, Quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting were used to detect cell proliferation,apoptosis ratio, invasion/ migration, the mRNA and protein expression of the realted markers, respectively. Overexpression of fascin1 was observed in RA-FLSs group compared with control group. Fascin1 expression positively correlated with changes in the expression of RA disease activity markers (RF, CRP, and DAB28, respectively). We also observed a significant positive correlation between Fascin1 and STAT3 mRNA levels in RA- FLSs.Fascin1 silencing attenuated the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines; reduced FLS proliferation in vitro; and increased apoptosis ratio and bax, cleaved PARP, and caspase-3 expression. si- Fascin1 transfection delayed RA-FLS invasion/migration and reversed the epithelial- mesenchymal transition. These data suggest that Fascin1 exerts positive effects on the proliferation, cell cycle, and invasion/migration of RA-FLSs by activating signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 signaling.After all, Fascin1 contributed to RA development.

Virtual Screening Technique Used to Estimate the Mechanism of Adhatoda vasica Nees for the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis Based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

Adhatoda vasica Nees (AVN) is commonly used to treat joint diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in ethnic minority areas of China, especially in Tibetan and Dai areas, and its molecular mechanisms on RA still remain unclear. Network pharmacology, a novel strategy, utilizes bioinformatics to predict and evaluate drug targets and interactions in disease. Here, network pharmacology was used to investigate the mechanism by which AVN acts in RA. The chemical compositions and functional targets of AVN were retrieved using the systematic pharmacological analysis platform PharmMapper. The targets of RA were queried through the DrugBank database. The protein-protein interaction network (PPI), Gene Ontology (GO), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses of key targets were constructed in the STRING database, and the network visualization analysis was performed in Cytoscape. Maestro 11.1, a type of professional software, was used for verifying prediction and analysis based on network pharmacology. By comparing the predicted target information with the targets of RA-related drugs, 25 potential targets may be related to the treatment of RA, among which MAPK1, TNF, DHODH, IL2, PTGS2, and JAK2 may be the main potential targets for the treatment of RA. Finally, the chemical components and potential target proteins were scored by molecular docking, and compared with the ligands of the protein, the prediction results of network pharmacology were preliminarily verified. The active ingredients and mechanism of AVN against RA were firstly investigated using network pharmacology. Additionally, this research provided a solid foundation for further experimental studies.

Deciphering the Active Ingredients and Molecular Mechanisms of Tripterygium hypoglaucum (Levl.) Hutch against Rheumatoid Arthritis Based on Network Pharmacology

Tripterygium hypoglaucum (Levl.) Hutch (THH) shows well clinical effect on rheumatoid arthritis (RA), but the active ingredients and molecular mechanisms remain unclear. This work was designed to explore these issues by network pharmacology. Compounds from THH were gathered by retrieving literatures. Compound-related and RA-related genes were identified using databases, and the overlapping genes were identified by Venn diagram. The active ingredients and genes of THH against RA were confirmed by dissecting interactions between overlapping genes and compounds using Cytoscape. SystemsDock website was used to further verify the combining degree of key genes with active ingredients. Pathway enrichment analysis was performed to decipher the mechanisms of THH against RA by Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery. A total of 123 compounds were collected, and 110 compounds-related and 1871 RA-related genes were identified, including 64 overlapping genes. The target genes and active ingredients of THH against RA comprised 64 genes and 17 compounds, the focus of which was PTGS2, triptolide, and celastrol. SystemsDock website indicated that the combing degree of PTGS2 with triptolide or celastrol was very good. The mechanisms of THH against RA were linked to 31 signaling pathways, and the key mechanism was related to inhibition of inflammation response through inactivating TNF and NF-kappa B signaling pathways. This work firstly explored the active ingredients and mechanisms of THH against RA by network pharmacology and provided evidence to support clinical effects of THH on RA.

Ethyl pyruvate inhibits LPS induced IPEC-J2 inflammation and apoptosis through p38 and ERK1/2 pathways

The endotoxin of Gram-negative bacteria threatens the intestinal health of livestock. Ethyl pyruvate (EP) has been shown to regulate intestinal immunity and protect against cell and tissue damage. In this study, it was first verified that EP could reduce the secretion of IL-8, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in LPS-induced IPEC-J2 cells. Then, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to analyze the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of inflammatory factors induced by LPS in IPEC-J2 cells. It was found that LPS induced the upregulation of 377 genes and the downregulation of 477 genes compared to Vehicle; LPS+EP induced the upregulation of 258 genes and the downregulation of 240 genes compared to Vehicle; and LPS+EP induced the upregulation of 373 genes and the downregulation of 188 genes compared to LPS (fold change > 1.5 and FDR < 0.01). Their enrichment pathways included the MAPK signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, and other pathways. Furthermore, the mRNA level of cytokines associated with inflammation and apoptosis enriched in the MAPK pathway was verified by qRT-PCR. Western blots and immunofluorescence revealed that EP significantly inhibited phosphorylated p38 and phosphorylated-ERK1/2 protein expression levels (P < 0.05). The apoptosis due to LPS reduced by EP was significantly inhibited, as shown by Annexin V-FITC/PI staining. According to the results, EP inhibited the expression of IL-8, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β as well as apoptosis by inhibiting the phosphorylation of p38 and ERK1/2 in LPS-induced IPEC-J2 cells.

MicroRNA-21-5p are involved in apoptosis and invasion of fibroblast-like synoviocytes through PTEN/PI3K/AKT signal

The function of microRNA-21-5p (miR-21) in fibroblast-like synoviocytes in RA was still unclear. In our study, we used tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) (10 ng/ml) to mimic RA-FLSs and we found that normal FLS stimulated with TNFα caused the increasing expression of miR-21, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 5 and matrix metalloproteinase 3, which were in accord with RA-FLSs changes. Our data showed that miR-21 overexpression significantly increased cell invasion and decreased apoptosis in FLSs. Knockdown of miR-21 in FLSs causes the opposite result. However, miR-21 may not affect the proliferation of FLSs. Meanwhile, we showed that miR-21 activated the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway to participate in RA by inhibiting PTEN expression. Taken together, our results suggested that miR-21 may play a positive role in RA and may be a promising new therapeutic target for RA.

Therapeutic effects of polysaccharides from Anoectochilus roxburghii on type II collagen-induced arthritis in rats

Anoectochilus roxburghii, a famous Chinese herbal medicine, has been commonly used for the treatment of liver disease, diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis. Our study aimed to investigate the anti-rheumatoid arthritis effects of A. roxburghii polysaccharides (ARP), using the rat's model of type II collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). ARP was prepared by alcohol sedimentation and structurally characterized based on combined chemical, chromatographic and spectroscopic methods. High Performance Size Exclusion Chromatography-Multiangle Laser Light Scattering-Refrative Index (HPSEC-MALLS-RI) analysis revealed that ARP includes two peaks, and the weight-average molecular weight (Mw) of the principal one was estimated as 5.90 kDa with a relative content of 98.2%. Pharmacological results exhibited that ARP significantly decreased the arthritis index and ameliorated the inflammatory cell infiltration and the synovial tissue destruction in CIA rats. Additionally, ARP possessed significant NO production inhibitory effects and antioxidant activity. Further anti-inflammatory mechanism investigations indicated that ARP significantly inhibited the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway by suppressing the phosphorylation of IκB and p65, which subsequently down-regulated the mRNA expressions of IL-1β and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. These findings suggested that ARP has great potential in the development of functional foods and dietary supplements for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Anacardic acid suppresses fibroblast-like synoviocyte proliferation and invasion and ameliorates collagen-induced arthritis in a mouse model

Anacardic acid, which is abundant in nutshell of Anacardium occidentale, has multiple pharmacological activities. In this study, we examined the therapeutic potential of anacardic acid in treating rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We explored the effects of anacardic acid on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in mice and on the proliferation and invasion of RA fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA-FLSs). The underlying molecular mechanism was investigated. Anacardic acid treatment markedly suppressed paw swelling, joint destruction, and arthritis scores in CIA mice. The serum levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF- α) and interleutkin-1beta (IL- 1β) were significantly lowered by anacardic acid. In vitro assays demonstrated that anacardic acid impaired the proliferation and invasion abilities of RA-FLSs in the presence of TNF- α or IL- 1β. Western blot analysis revealed the reduction of Akt protein expression and phoshporylation in RA-FLSs by anacardic acid. However, the mRNA level of Akt remained unchanged. Anacardic acid treatment significantly increased the expression of miR-633 in RA-FLSs. Akt was identified as a novel target of miR-633. Overexpression of miR-633 significantly inhibited the proliferation and invasion of RA-FLSs, which was rescued by enforced expression of Akt. Depletion of miR-633 prevented anacardic acid-mediated suppression of proliferation and invasion of RA-FLSs, which was accompanied by increased expression of Akt protein. In conclusion, anacardic acid may serve as a promising agent in the treatment of RA.

miR-145 eliminates lipopolysaccharides-induced inflammatory injury in human fibroblast-like synoviocyte MH7A cells

Recently, it has been accepted that miR-based therapy may be beneficial for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This study aimed to evaluate the potential involvement of miR-145 in RA in vitro. The expression of miR-145 in the human fibroblast-like synoviocyte line MH7A was overexpressed by miR-mimic transfection, after which cells were subjected to lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Cell viability, apoptosis, and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines were measured. The result showed that the apoptosis and the release of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α were significantly induced by LPS. Meanwhile, LPS treatment led to downregulation of miR-145. miR-145 overexpression in LPS-untreated MH7A cells had no impacts on cell apoptosis and inflammation. But, restoring miR-145 expression in LPS-stimulated cells by supplementation of a miR-145 mimic protected MH7A cells against LPS-induced apoptosis and inflammation. Furthermore, miR-145 overexpression in LPS-untreated MH7A cells slightly blocked the PI3K/ATK and mTOR pathways, whereas miR-145 overexpression in LPS-stimulated cells notably repressed the LPS-induced activation of PI3K/ATK and MAPK/mTOR pathways. Our study suggested that miR-145 protected MH7A cells against LPS-induced apoptosis and inflammation by inhibiting the PI3K/AKT and MAPK/mTOR pathways.

Anti-inflammatory Mechanism of Geniposide: Inhibiting the Hyperpermeability of Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes via the RhoA/p38MAPK/NF-κB/F-Actin Signal Pathway

Geniposide (GE) is the extraction and purification of iridoid glycosides from the Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, which is a promising anti-inflammatory drug, but its mechanism of actions on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has not been clarified. This study investigated the molecular mechanism behind GE reduced the high permeability of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) derived from SD rats with adjuvant arthritis (AA), with the aims of observing the action of GE in AA rats and exploring new therapeutic strategies for RA treatment. The CCK-8 method was used to detect FLSs proliferation. The pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and anti-inflammatory cytokines levels in FLSs were determined by ELISA kits. FLSs permeability assay was performed on Transwell. Immunofluorescence was used to assay the arrangement and morphology of F-actin. The expression of the key molecules related to FLSs permeability (RhoA, p-p38MAPK, NF-κB p-p65 and F-actin) was detected by western blotting. After treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the proliferation and the permeability of the cells increased significantly (all P < 0.05). The expression of RhoA, p-p38MAPK, NF-κB p-p65 and F-actin in FLSs was higher compared with the control group, and F-actin was redistributed, with the formation of additional stress fibers. But, these conditions were moderated after treatment with GE. We demonstrated that the treatment of different concentrations of GE (25, 50, and 100 μg/mL) had a significant inhibitory effect on the proliferation and permeability of FLSs in vitro. Furthermore, the levels of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-17 secreted by FLSs were decreased in different doses of GE groups, and the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, TGF-β1) were increased. Under treatment with GE, low expression of RhoA downregulated expression of p-p38MAPK, NF-κB p-p65, and F-actin while compared with control group, and restored the hyperpermeability of FLSs due to LPS treatment. Taken together, GE might play its anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects via regulating the relative equilibrium of pro-inflammatory cytokines and anti-inflammatory cytokines. GE attenuated the hyperpermeability of FLSs. The down-regulation of the conduction of RhoA/p38MAPK/NF-κB/F-actin signal may play a critical role in the mechanisms of GE on RA. GE could be an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of RA.