Traditional Applications, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Activities of Eupatorium lindleyanum DC.: A Comprehensive Review

Eupalinolide B alleviates rheumatoid arthritis through the promotion of apoptosis and autophagy via regulating the AMPK/mTOR/ULK-1 signaling axis

The excessive proliferation of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) leads to synovial hyperplasia, a key pathological hallmark of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Eupalinolide B (EB), a sesquiterpene lactone of Eupatorium lindleyanum DC., has anti-inflammatory effects and anti-proliferative activity in tumor cells. However, its potential use in RA treatment is unclear. This study explored EB's anti-rheumatoid activities by promoting apoptosis and autophagy in RA-FLS and the synovium of adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rats, focusing on its regulation of the AMPK/mTOR/ULK-1 axis. Our findings revealed that EB inhibited proliferation, induced apoptosis, and promoted autophagy in RA-FLS. Autophagy inhibition using 3-methyladenine (3-MA) diminished EB's anti-proliferative effects, suggesting that EB promotes RA-FLS autophagy as a death mechanism. Z-VAD-FMK, a pan-caspase inhibitor, decreased EB-induced autophagy, while 3-MA co-treatment reduced caspase-3 activity, demonstrating that EB-induced apoptosis and autophagy promoted each other to support its anti-proliferative effects. In vivo, EB exhibited clear anti-arthritic effects in AIA rats, as shown by reduced paw swelling, arthritis index, serum levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and MCP-1, and joint damage, along with decreased Ki67 expression, increased apoptosis, and enhanced autophagy in AIA rat synovium. Mechanistically, EB regulated the AMPK/mTOR/ULK-1 axis in RA-FLS and AIA rat synovium, as evidenced by higher expression of p-AMPK and p-ULK-1 and lower levels of p-mTOR. Notably, co-treatment of the AMPK inhibitor compound C negated EB's beneficial effects in RA-FLS and AIA rats. Collectively, EB demonstrated exact anti-RA effects by inducing apoptosis and autophagy via the regulation of the AMPK/mTOR/ULK-1 axis, highlighting its potential for RA therapy.

Yemazhui () ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury modulation of the toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor kappa-B/nod-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 protein signaling pathway and intestinal flora in rats

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of Yemazhui (Herba Eupatorii Lindleyani, HEL) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) and explore its underlying mechanism in vivo.

METHODS

The chemical constituents of HEL were analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method. Then, HEL was found to suppress LPS-induced ALI in vivo. Six-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 6 groups: control, LPS, Dexamethasone (Dex), HEL low dose 6 g/kg (HEL-L), HEL medium dose 18 g/kg (HEL-M) and HEL high dose 54 g/kg (HEL-H) groups. The model rats were intratracheally injected with 3 mg/kg LPS to establish an ALI model. Leukocyte counts, lung wet/dry weight ratio, as well as myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity were determined followed by the detection with hematoxylin and eosin staining, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction, western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence. Besides, to explore the effect of HEL on ALI-mediated intestinal flora, we performed 16s rRNA sequencing analysis of intestinal contents.

RESULTS

HEL attenuated LPS-induced inflammation in lung tissue and intestinal flora disturbance. Mechanism study indicated that HEL suppressed the lung coefficient and wet/dry weight ratio of LPS-induced ALI in rats, inhibited leukocytes exudation and MPO activity, and improved the pathological injury of lung tissue. In addition, HEL reduced the expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and serum, and inhibited nuclear displacement of nuclear factor kappa-B p65 (NF-κBp65). And 18 g/kg HEL also reduced the expression levels of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation factor 88, NF-κBp65, phosphorylated inhibitor kappa B alpha (phospho-IκBα), nod-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 protein (NLRP3), IL-1β, and interleukin-18 (IL-18) in lung tissue, and regulated intestinal flora disturbance.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our findings revealed that HEL has a protective effect on LPS-induced ALI in rats, and its mechanism may be related to inhibiting TLR4/ NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway and improving intestinal flora disturbance.

Total sesquiterpenoids from Eupatorium lindleyanum DC. attenuate bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis by suppressing myofibroblast transition

Eupatorium lindleyanum DC. has been used as a functional food in China for a long time. However, the antifibrotic activity of total sesquiterpenoids from Eupatorium lindleyanum DC. (TS-EL) is still unknown. In this study, we discovered that TS-EL reduced the increase in α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), type I collagen and fibronectin content, the formation of cell filaments and collagen gel contraction in transforming growth factor-β1-stimulated human lung fibroblasts. Intriguingly, TS-EL did not change the phosphorylation of Smad2/3 and Erk1/2. TS-EL decreased the levels of serum response factor (SRF), a critical transcription factor of α-SMA, and SRF knockdown alleviated the transition of lung myofibroblasts. Furthermore, TS-EL significantly attenuated bleomycin (BLM)-induced lung pathology and collagen deposition and reduced the levels of two profibrotic markers, total lung hydroxyproline and α-SMA. TS-EL also decreased the levels of SRF protein expression in BLM-induced mice. These results suggested that TS-EL attenuates pulmonary fibrosis by inhibiting myofibroblast transition via the downregulation of SRF.

Eupalinolide J Inhibits Cancer Metastasis by Promoting STAT3 Ubiquitin-Dependent Degradation

Eupalinolide J (EJ) is an active component from Eupatorium lindleyanum DC. (EL), which was reported to have good antitumor activity via STAT3 and Akt signaling pathways. In this study, we identified Eupalinolide J (EJ) as a potential anti-cancer metastatic agent by target prediction and molecular docking technique screening. Follow-up experiments demonstrated that EJ exhibited a good inhibitory effect on cancer cell metastasis both in vitro and in vivo, and could effectively reduce the expression of STAT3, MMP-2, and MMP-9 proteins in cells, while the knockdown of STAT3 could weaken the inhibitory effect of EJ on cancer cell metastasis. Further molecular biology experiments revealed that EJ promoted STAT3 ubiquitin-dependent degradation, and thus, downregulated the expression of the metastasis-related genes MMP-2 and MMP-9. In conclusion, our study revealed that EJ, a sesquiterpene lactone from EL, could act as a STAT3 degradation agent to inhibit cancer cell metastasis and is expected to be applied in cancer therapy.

Characterization of the metabolism of eupalinolide A and B by carboxylesterase and cytochrome P450 in human liver microsomes

Eupalinolide A (EA; Z-configuration) and eupalinolide B (EB; E-configuration) are bioactive cis-trans isomers isolated from Eupatorii Lindleyani Herba that exert anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects. Although one pharmacokinetic study found that the metabolic parameters of the isomers were different in rats, metabolic processes relevant to EA and EB remain largely unknown. Our preliminary findings revealed that EA and EB are rapidly hydrolyzed by carboxylesterase. Here, we investigated the metabolic stability and enzyme kinetics of carboxylesterase-mediated hydrolysis and cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated oxidation of EA and EB in human liver microsomes (HLMs). We also explored differences in the hydrolytic stability of EA and EB in human liver microsomes and rat liver microsomes (RLMs). Moreover, cytochrome P450 reaction phenotyping of the isomers was performed via in silico methods (i.e., using a quantitative structure-activity relationship model and molecular docking) and confirmed using human recombinant enzymes. The total normalized rate approach was considered to assess the relative contributions of five major cytochrome P450s to EA and EB metabolism. We found that EA and EB were eliminated rapidly, mainly by carboxylesterase-mediated hydrolysis, as compared with cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation. An inter-species difference was observed as well, with faster rates of EA and EB hydrolysis in rat liver microsomes. Furthermore, our findings confirmed EA and EB were metabolized by multiple cytochrome P450s, among which CYP3A4 played a particularly important role.

Eupalinolide A induces autophagy via the ROS/ERK signaling pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most common primary malignancy of the liver. The current systemic drugs used to treat hepatocellular carcinoma result in low overall survival time. It has therefore been suggested that new small‑molecule drugs should be developed for treating hepatocellular carcinoma. Eupatorium lindleyanum DC. (EL) has been used to treat numerous diseases, particularly respiratory diseases; however, to the best of our knowledge, studies have not yet fully elucidated the effect of EL on hepatocellular carcinoma. In the present study, the effect of eupalinolide A (EA), one of the extracts of EL, was evaluated on tumor growth in a xenograft model of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells, and on the proliferation and migration of hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Cell cycle progression and the type of cell death were then evaluated using the Cell Counting Kit 8 assay, flow cytometry, electron microscopy and western blotting. EA significantly inhibited cell proliferation and migration by arresting the cell cycle at the G1 phase and inducing autophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. EA‑induced autophagy was mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ERK signaling activation. Specific inhibitors of ROS, autophagy and ERK inhibited EA‑induced cell death and migration. In conclusion, the present study revealed that EA may inhibit the proliferation and migration of hepatocellular carcinoma cells, highlighting its potential as a promising antitumor compound for treating hepatocellular carcinoma.

Eupalinolide B attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury through inhibition of NF-κB and MAPKs signaling by targeting TAK1 protein

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening disease characterized by severe inflammatory response, which has no pharmacological therapy in clinic. In this study, we found that eupalinolide B (EB), a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from Eupatorium lindleyanum, significantly ameliorated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI in mice, which manifests as reduction in lung injury score, activity of myeloperoxidase, and release of cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). In RAW264.7 murine macrophages, EB effectively inhibited LPS-induced production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂) by down-regulating the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2), respectively. Mechanistically, EB not only blocked LPS-induced phosphorylation of inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa B kinase-α/β (IKKα/β), phosphorylation and degradation of inhibitor of nuclear factor-kappa B alpha (IκBα), and phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) P65, but also suppressed LPS-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in vitro or in vivo. Through cellular thermal shift assay and western blotting, EB was demonstrated to target and inactivate transforming growth factor β activated kinase-1 (TAK1), which is an important upstream kinase for the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs pathways. Additionally, EB-mediated actions were markedly abolished by dithiothreitol in LPS-exposed RAW264.7 cells, suggesting a crucial role of the α,γ-unsaturated lactone for the anti-inflammatory activity of EB. In conclusion, our findings showed that EB could effectively alleviate ALI in mice, and attenuate inflammatory response by inhibiting the activation of TAK1, and TAK1-mediated activation of NF-κB and MAPKs cascades.

Eupalinolide B inhibits hepatic carcinoma by inducing ferroptosis and ROS-ER-JNK pathway

Primary hepatic carcinoma is a common malignant tumor. The classic molecular targeted drug sorafenib is costly and is only effective for some patients. Therefore, it is of great clinical significance to search for new molecular targeted drugs. Eupalinolide B (EB) from Eupatorium lindleyanum DC. is used to treat chronic tracheitis in clinical practice. However, the role of EB in hepatic carcinoma is unknown. In this study, we first measure the effect of EB on tumor growth in a xenograft model and PDX model. The cell proliferation and migration are also detected in human hepatocarcinoma cell lines (SMMC-7721 and HCCLM3). Then, we investigate cell cycle, cell apoptosis, cell necrosis, cell autophagy, and ferroptosis by flow cytometry, western blot analysis and electron microscopy. The results demonstrate that EB exerts anti-proliferative activity in hepatic carcinoma by blocking cell cycle arrest at S phase and inducing ferroptosis mediated by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, as well as HO-1 activation. When HO-1 is inhibited, EB-induced cell death and ER protein expression are rescued. The migration-related mechanism consists of activation of the ROS-ER-JNK signaling pathway and is not connected to ferroptosis. In summary, we first discover that EB inhibits cell proliferation and migration in hepatic carcinoma, and thus EB is a promising anti-tumor compound that can be used for hepatic carcinoma.

P-cymene prevent high-fat diet-associated colorectal cancer by improving the structure of intestinal flora

Objective: To investigate the preventing effect of P-cymene on high fat diet-related colorectal cancer and its mechanism.

Methods: Forty Wistar rats were randomly divided into G1 group (high-fat diet), G2 group (high-fat diet + DMH), G3 group (high-fat diet + P-cymene), and G4 group (high-fat diet + DMH + P-cymene).G2 and G4 groups were subcutaneously injected with dimethylhydrazine (DMH), and G3 and G4 groups were intragastrically administered with P-cymene to investigate the effects of P-cymene on tumor formation, inflammatory factors, glucose, lipid metabolism and gut microbes.

Results: No tumors were formed in the high-fat diet group (G1) or the high-fat diet + P-cymone group (G3). 7 rats (70%) of the high-fat diet + DMH group (G2) developed 8 cancerous nodules, including 6 adenocarcinomas and 2 signet ring cell carcinomas; 4 rats (40%) in the high-fat diet + DMH + P-cymene group (G4) group formed 4 cancerous nodules, all of which were adenocarcinoma. There was no significant difference in the changes of glucose and lipid metabolism in each group. After the use of P-cymene, IL-1 decreased, IL-6 increased, and LEP decreased in the G4 group.The difference was statistically significant.The contents of Candida and Unclassified Bacteria in the G3 group rats were significantly lower than those in the G1 group.At the species level comparison, compared with the G2 group, the content of Clostridium XlVa in the intestinal tract of the G2 group rats was significantly increased compared to the G1 group.

Conclusion: In this study, it was found that p-cymenen can prevent the occurrence of colorectal cancer related to high-fat and high-calorie diet. The mechanism may be is reducing the expression of inflammatory factors such as IL-1 and LEP, increasing the expression of inflammatory factors of IL-6, and promoting the growth of probiotics such as bifidobacteria, isobacteria and clostridium IV in the intestinal tract.