The Production of Testosterone and Gene Expression in Neonatal Testes of Rats Exposed to Diisoheptyl Phthalate During Pregnancy is Inhibited

Phthalate toxicity mechanisms: An update

Phthalates are one of the most widely used plasticizers in polymer products, and they are increasingly being exposed to people all over the world, generating health concerns. Phthalates are often used as excipients in controlled-release capsules and enteric coatings, and patients taking these drugs may be at risk. In both animals and human, phthalates are mainly responsible for testicular dysfunction, ovarian toxicity, reduction in steroidogenesis. In this regard, for a better understanding of the health concerns corresponding to phthalates and their metabolites, still more research is required. Significantly, multifarious forms of phthalates and their biomedical effects are need to be beneficial to investigate in the various tissues or organs. Based on these investigations, researchers can decipher their toxicity concerns and related mechanisms in the body after phthalate's exposure. This review summarizes the chemical interactions, mechanisms, and their biomedical applications of phthalates in animals and human.

Expression and Role of INSL3 in the Fetal Testis

Insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) is a small peptide hormone of the insulin-relaxin family which is produced and secreted by the fetal Leydig cells in the testes only. It appears to be undetectable in female fetuses. In the human fetus INSL3 synthesis begins immediately following gonadal sex determination at weeks 7 to 8 post coitum and the peptide can be detected in amniotic fluid 1 to 2 weeks later. INSL3 acts through a unique G-protein-coupled receptor, called RelaXin-like Family Peptide receptor 2 (RXFP2), which is expressed by the mesenchymal cells of the gubernacular ligament linking the testes to the inguinal wall. The role of INSL3 in the male fetus is to cause a thickening of the gubernaculum which then retains the testes in the inguinal region, while the remainder of the abdominal organs grow away in an antero-dorsal direction. This represents the first phase of testis descent and is followed later in pregnancy by the second inguino-scrotal phase whereby the testes pass into the scrotum through the inguinal canal. INSL3 acts as a significant biomarker for Leydig cell differentiation in the fetus and may be reduced by maternal exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals, such as xenoestrogens or phthalates, leading to cryptorchidism. INSL3 may have other roles within the fetus, but as a Leydig cell biomarker its reduction acts also as a surrogate for anti-androgen action.

Chrysin abrogates gibberellic acid-induced testicular oxidative stress and dysfunction via the regulation of antioxidants and steroidogenesis- and apoptosis-associated genes

GA3 is widely used as a growth stimulant in agricultural regions. The long-term use of GA3 can cause organs damage. Chrysin is a flavonoid found in nature that is commonly used to treat organ toxicity. In this study, we examined the effect of chrysin on the testes function of GA3-affected rats. A total of 24 male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups. Saline was given to the control group. The chrysin group was given orally 50 mg/kg/BW of chrysin in saline. The GA3 group received a daily oral gavage of GA3 (55 mg/kg/BW). The protective group (chrysin + GA3) was given chrysin and GA3 as those described in chrysin and GA3 groups. There were an increase in MDA levels in the serum and testicular tissue of GA3-treated group. Catalase, GSH, and SOD levels were all lowered in the GA3-treated rats. Chrysin dramatically reduced the harmful effects of GA3 by restoring reproductive hormone levels, altered sperm parameters, and antioxidant capabilities. Furthermore, GA3 reduced the quantitative expression of steroidogenesis genes StAR and 3-HSD, as well as Bcl2 genes, while it increased the apoptotic marker BAX; all were alleviated by the pre-administration of chrysin. The pre-administration of chrysin protected the GA3 group from spermatogenic vacuolation, interstitial edema, necrosis, and depletion. Chrysin inhibited oxidative stress and modulated antioxidant activity, as well as apoptosis-/anti-apoptosis-related mediators in the testes. Chrysin has the potential to repair GA3-induced testicular dysfunctions. This suggests that chrysin is preferable as a medication to mitigate GA3-induced oxidative damage in the testes. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Chrysin has the potential to repair GA3-induced testicular dysfunctions. This suggests that chrysin is preferable as a medication to mitigate GA3-induced oxidative damage in the testes.