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Dai Y, Ban W, Yang Z. Gastrodin, a Promising Natural Small Molecule for the Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders, and Its Recent Progress in Synthesis, Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:9540. [PMID: 39273485 PMCID: PMC11394983 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25179540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Gastrodia elata Blume is a traditional medicinal and food homology substance that has been used for thousands of years, is mainly distributed in China and other Asian countries, and has always been distinguished as a superior class of herbs. Gastrodin is the main active ingredient of G. elata Blume and has attracted increasing attention because of its extensive pharmacological activities. In addition to extraction and isolation from the original plant, gastrodin can also be obtained via chemical synthesis and biosynthesis. Gastrodin has significant pharmacological effects on the central nervous system, such as sedation and improvement of sleep. It can also improve epilepsy, neurodegenerative diseases, emotional disorders and cognitive impairment to a certain extent. Gastrodin is rapidly absorbed and widely distributed in the body and can also penetrate the blood-brain barrier. In brief, gastrodin is a promising natural small molecule with significant potential in the treatment of brain diseases. In this review, we summarised studies on the synthesis, pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetic characteristics of gastrodin, with emphasis on its effects on central nervous system disorders and the possible mechanisms, in order to find potential therapeutic applications and provide favourable information for the research and development of gastodin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Dai
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Weikang Ban
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhihong Yang
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
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He X, Chen X, Yang Y, Gu J, Xie Y, Liu Y, Hao M, Heinrich M. The role of gastrodin in the management of CNS-related diseases: Underlying mechanisms to therapeutic perspectives. Phytother Res 2024. [PMID: 39148368 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.8314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Revised: 07/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/17/2024]
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS)-related diseases have a high mortality rate, are a serious threat to physical and mental health, and have always been an important area of research. Gastrodin, the main active metabolite of Gastrodia elata Blume, used in Chinese medicine and food, has a wide range of pharmacological effects, mostly related to CNS disorders. This review aims to systematically summarize and discuss the effects and underlying mechanisms of gastrodin in the treatment of CNS diseases, and to assess its potential for further development as a lead drug in both biomedicine and traditional Chinese medicine. Studies on the pharmacological effects of gastrodin on the CNS indicate that it may exert anti-neurodegenerative, cerebrovascular protective, and ameliorative effects on diabetic encephalopathy, perioperative neurocognitive dysfunction, epilepsy, Tourette's syndrome, depression and anxiety, and sleep disorders through various mechanisms. To date, 110 gastrodin products have been approved for clinical use, but further multicenter clinical case-control studies are relatively scarce. Preclinical studies have confirmed that gastrodin can be used to treat CNS-related disorders. However, important concerns need to be addressed in the context of likely non-specific, assay interfering effects when gastrodin is studied using in vitro and in silico approaches, calling for a systematic assessment of the evidence to date. High-quality clinical trials should have priority to evaluate the therapeutic safety and clinical efficacy of gastrodin. Further experimental research using appropriate in vivo models is also needed, focusing on neurodegenerative diseases, cerebral ischemic and hypoxic diseases, brain damage caused by methamphetamine or heavy metals, and epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xirui He
- School of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus, Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Xufei Chen
- Key laboratory of Western Resource Biology and Modern Biotechnology, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yan Yang
- School of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus, Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Jingyi Gu
- UCL School of Pharmacy, Pharmacognosy & Phytotherapy, University College London, London, UK
| | - Yulu Xie
- School of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus, Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, China
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yujie Liu
- School of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus, Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Man Hao
- Clinical Medical College of Acupuncture Moxibustion and Rehabilitation, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Ortho- and MSK-Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Michael Heinrich
- UCL School of Pharmacy, Pharmacognosy & Phytotherapy, University College London, London, UK
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Sun H, Li M, Li Y, Zheng N, Li J, Li X, Liu Y, Ji Q, Zhou L, Su J, Huang W, Liu Z, Liu P, Zou L. Gastrodin Improves the Activity of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System and the Autophagy-Lysosome Pathway to Degrade Mutant Huntingtin. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7709. [PMID: 39062952 PMCID: PMC11277377 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25147709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Gastrodin (GAS) is the main chemical component of the traditional Chinese herb Gastrodia elata (called "Tianma" in Chinese), which has been used to treat neurological conditions, including headaches, epilepsy, stroke, and memory loss. To our knowledge, it is unclear whether GAS has a therapeutic effect on Huntington's disease (HD). In the present study, we evaluated the effect of GAS on the degradation of mutant huntingtin protein (mHtt) by using PC12 cells transfected with N-terminal mHtt Q74. We found that 0.1-100 μM GAS had no effect on the survival rate of Q23 and Q74 PC12 cells after 24-48 h of incubation. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is the main system that clears misfolded proteins in eukaryotic cells. Mutated Htt significantly upregulated total ubiquitinated protein (Ub) expression, decreased chymotrypsin-like, trypsin-like and caspase-like peptidase activity, and reduced the colocalization of the 20S proteasome with mHtt. GAS (25 μM) attenuated all of the abovementioned pathological changes, and the regulatory effect of GAS on mHtt was found to be abolished by MG132, a proteasome inhibitor. The autophagy-lysosome pathway (ALP) is another system for misfolded protein degradation. Although GAS downregulated the expression of autophagy markers (LC3II and P62), it increased the colocalization of LC3II with lysosomal associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1), which indicates that ALP was activated. Moreover, GAS prevented mHtt-induced neuronal damage in PC12 cells. GAS has a selective effect on mHtt in Q74 PC12 cells and has no effect on Q23 and proteins encoded by other genes containing long CAGs, such as Rbm33 (10 CAG repeats) and Hcn1 (>30 CAG repeats). Furthermore, oral administration of 100 mg/kg GAS increased grip strength and attenuated mHtt aggregates in B6-hHTT130-N transgenic mice. This is a high dose (100 mg/kg GAS) when compared with experiments on HD mice with other small molecules. We will design more doses to evaluate the dose-response relationship of the inhibition effect of GAS on mHtt in our next study. In summary, GAS can promote the degradation of mHtt by activating the UPS and ALP, making it a potential therapeutic agent for HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
| | - Miao Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
| | - Yunling Li
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (Y.L.); (W.H.)
| | - Na Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
| | - Jiaxin Li
- Department of Bioengineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China;
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China;
| | - Yingying Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
| | - Qianyun Ji
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
| | - Liping Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
| | - Jingwen Su
- School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China;
| | - Wanxu Huang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (Y.L.); (W.H.)
| | - Zhongbo Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China;
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
| | - Libo Zou
- Department of Pharmacology, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; (H.S.); (M.L.); (N.Z.); (Y.L.); (Q.J.); (L.Z.)
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Yang YH, Fan XX, Ye L, Huang WJ, Ko CY. Examining the molecular mechanisms of topiramate in alleviating insulin resistance: A study on C2C12 myocytes and 3T3L-1 adipocytes. Endocrine 2024; 85:168-180. [PMID: 38308786 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-024-03706-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Migraine, a severely debilitating condition, may be effectively managed with topiramate, known for its migraine prevention and weight loss properties due to changes in body muscle and fat composition and improved insulin sensitivity. However, the mechanism of topiramate in modulating insulin response in adipocytes and myocytes remains elusive. This study aims to elucidate these molecular mechanisms, offering insights into its role in weight management for migraine sufferers and underpinning its clinical application. METHODS Insulin resistance improvements were evaluated through glucose uptake measurements in C2C12 muscle cells and 3T3L-1 adipocytes, with Oil red O staining conducted on adipocytes. RNA-seq transcriptome analysis was used to identify the regulatory target genes of topiramate in these cells. The involvement of key genes and pathways was further validated through western blot analysis. RESULTS Topiramate effectively reduced insulin resistance in C2C12 and 3T3L-1 cells. In C2C12 cells, it significantly lowered SORBS1 gene and protein levels. In 3T3L-1 cells, topiramate upregulated CTGF and downregulated MAPK8 and KPNA1 genes. Changes were notable in nuclear cytoplasmic transport and circadian signaling pathways. Furthermore, it caused downregulation of MKK7, pJNK1/ JNK1, BMAL1, and CLOCK proteins compared to the insulin-resistant model. CONCLUSION This study provides preliminary insights into the mechanisms through which topiramate modulates insulin resistance in C2C12 myocytes and 3T3L-1 adipocytes, enhancing our understanding of its therapeutic potential in managing weight and insulin sensitivity in migraine patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Hui Yang
- The School of Public Health, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, 362000, China
| | - Xi-Xin Fan
- The School of Public Health, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, 362000, China
| | - Lichao Ye
- Department of Neurology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian, 3620000, China
| | - Wen-Jian Huang
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, 362000, China
- Huidong Center for Chronic Disease Control, Huizhou, Guangdong Province, 516300, China
| | - Chih-Yuan Ko
- The School of Public Health, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China.
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, 362000, China.
- The School of Medical Technology and Engineering, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350122, China.
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Dong Q, Fu H, Jiang H. The role of exosome-shuttled miRNAs in heavy metal-induced peripheral tissues and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 176:116880. [PMID: 38850652 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Heavy metal-induced neuroinflammation is a significant pathophysiologic mechanism in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of AD. Multiple miRNAs are differentially expressed in peripheral tissues after heavy metal exposure, and increasing evidence suggests that they are involved in AD progression by regulating microglial homeostasis. Exosomes, which are capable of loading miRNAs and crossing the bloodbrain barrier, serve as mediators of communication between peripheral tissues and the brain. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on the link between miRNAs in peripheral tissues and neuroinflammation in AD after heavy metal exposure and propose a role for miRNAs in the microglial neurodegenerative phenotype (MGnD) of AD. This study will help to elucidate the link between peripheral tissue damage and MGnD-mediated neuroinflammation in AD after heavy metal exposure. Additionally, we summarize the regulatory effects of natural compounds on peripheral tissue-derived miRNAs, which could be potential therapeutic targets for natural compounds to regulate peripheral tissue-derived exosomal miRNAs to ameliorate heavy metal-induced MGnD-mediated neuroinflammation in patients with AD after heavy metal exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Dong
- Department of Health Laboratory Technology, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China.
| | - Huanyong Fu
- Department of Health Laboratory Technology, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China.
| | - Hong Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Stress and Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China; The Key Laboratory of Liaoning Province on Toxic and Biological Effects of Arsenic, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China; Department of Health Laboratory Technology, School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China.
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Wu L, Liu Y, Zhou H, Cao Z, Yu J. Gastrodin Ameliorates Learning and Memory Impairments Caused by Long-Term Noise Exposure. Noise Health 2024; 26:396-402. [PMID: 39345083 DOI: 10.4103/nah.nah_76_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The developing brain is significantly affected by long-term exposure to noise at an early age, leading to functional disorders such as learning and memory impairments. Gastrodin (GAS), a natural organic compound, is an extraction of phenolic glycoside from the rhizome of Gastrodia elata. Clinically, GAS is extensively utilised for the treatment of neurological disorders. This study aimed to explore the effect and mechanism of GAS on noise exposure-induced learning and memory impairments. Rats aged 21 days were exposed to a 90 dB noise environment for 4 weeks and divided into the noise group, the noise + GAS group, and the control group to establish a noise exposure model. After noise exposure treatment, the improvement effect of GAS on the memory of rats was evaluated by Y-maze and Morris water maze. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was utilised to determine the effect of GAS on neurotransmitter levels in the hippocampal tissue of noise-exposed rats. Western blot was applied for the detection of the protein levels of neurotrophic factors. The GAS treatment significantly improved spatial memory and increased the levels of key neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin) and neurotrophic factors (neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor) in the hippocampal tissues of noise-exposed rats. These alterations correlate with enhanced cognitive functions, suggesting a neuroprotective effect of GAS against noise-induced cognitive impairments. This study supports the potential of GAS to treat noise-induced learning and memory impairments by modulating neurotransmitter secretion and enhancing the expression levels of neurotrophic factors. These findings offer potential therapeutic avenues for cognitive impairments induced by noise exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Wu
- Department of Pathology, Peking University Cancer Hospital Yunnan/Yunnan Cancer Hospital/The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University Kunming, Yunnan 650118, China
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Pathology, Peking University Cancer Hospital Yunnan/Yunnan Cancer Hospital/The Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University Kunming, Yunnan 650118, China
| | - Hu Zhou
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Zhenzhen Cao
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Jianyun Yu
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
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Ouyang D, Huang C, Liu H, Xie W, Chen C, Su B, Guo L. Comprehensive analysis of genetic associations and single-cell expression profiles reveals potential links between migraine and multiple diseases: a phenome-wide association study. Front Neurol 2024; 15:1301208. [PMID: 38385040 PMCID: PMC10879407 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2024.1301208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Migraine is a common neurological disorder that affects more than one billion people worldwide. Recent genome-wide association studies have identified 123 genetic loci associated with migraine risk. However, the biological mechanisms underlying migraine and its relationships with other complex diseases remain unclear. We performed a phenome-wide association study (PheWAS) using UK Biobank data to investigate associations between migraine and 416 phenotypes. Mendelian randomization was employed using the IVW method. For loci associated with multiple diseases, pleiotropy was tested using MR-Egger. Single-cell RNA sequencing data was analyzed to profile the expression of 73 migraine susceptibility genes across brain cell types. qPCR was used to validate the expression of selected genes in microglia. PheWAS identified 15 disorders significantly associated with migraine, with one association detecting potential pleiotropy. Single-cell analysis revealed elevated expression of seven susceptibility genes (including ZEB2, RUNX1, SLC24A3, ANKDD1B, etc.) in brain glial cells. And qPCR confirmed the upregulation of these genes in LPS-treated microglia. This multimodal analysis provides novel insights into the link between migraine and other diseases. The single-cell profiling suggests the involvement of specific brain cells and molecular pathways. Validation of gene expression in microglia supports their potential role in migraine pathology. Overall, this study uncovers pleiotropic relationships and the biological underpinnings of migraine susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Ouyang
- Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Yulin, Yulin, China
| | - Chunying Huang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Yulin, Yulin, China
| | - Huihua Liu
- Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Yulin, Yulin, China
| | | | | | - Ben Su
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lizhong Guo
- Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
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Morimoto K, Watanuki S, Eguchi R, Kitano T, Otsuguro KI. Short-term memory impairment following recovery from systemic inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide in mice. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1273039. [PMID: 37920299 PMCID: PMC10618367 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1273039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The relationship between neuroinflammation and mental disorders has been recognized and investigated for over 30 years. Diseases of systemic or peripheral inflammation, such as sepsis, peritonitis, and infection, are associated with increased risk of mental disorders with neuroinflammation. To elucidate the pathogenesis, systemic administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice is often used. LPS-injected mice exhibit behavioral abnormalities with glial activation. However, these studies are unlikely to recapitulate the clinical pathophysiology of human patients, as most studies focus on the acute inflammatory response with systemic symptoms occurring within 24 h of LPS injection. In this study, we focus on the effects of LPS on behavioral abnormalities following recovery from systemic symptoms and investigate the mechanisms of pathogenesis. Several behavioral tests were performed in LPS-injected mice, and to assess neuroinflammation, the time course of the morphological change and expression of inflammatory factors in neurons, astrocytes, and microglia were investigated. At 7 days post-LPS injection, mice exhibited short-term memory impairment accompanied by the suppression of neuronal activity and increases in morphologically immature spines. Glial cells were transiently activated in the hippocampus concomitant with upregulation of the microglial phagocytosis marker CD68 3 days after injection. Here we show that transient glial cell activation in the acute response phase affects neuronal activity and behavior following recovery from systemic symptoms. These findings provide novel insights for studies using the LPS-induced inflammation model and that will contribute to the development of treatments for mental disorders of this etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohei Morimoto
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shu Watanuki
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ryota Eguchi
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Taisuke Kitano
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Aomori, Japan
| | - Ken-ichi Otsuguro
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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