Mitochondria as novel mediators linking gut microbiota to atherosclerosis that is ameliorated by herbal medicine: A review

Oxidative stress disrupts vascular microenvironmental homeostasis affecting the development of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is primarily an inflammatory reaction of the cardiovascular system caused by endothelial damage, leading to progressive thickening and hardening of the vessel walls, as well as extensive necrosis and fibrosis of the surrounding tissues, the most necessary pathological process causing cardiovascular disease. When the body responds to harmful internal and external stimuli, excess oxygen free radicals are produced causing oxidative stress to occur in cells and tissues. Simultaneously, the activation of inflammatory immunological processes is followed by an elevation in oxygen free radicals, which directly initiates the release of cytokines and chemokines, resulting in a detrimental cycle of vascular homeostasis abnormalities. Oxidative stress contributes to the harm inflicted upon vascular endothelial cells and the decrease in nitric oxide levels. Nitric oxide is crucial for maintaining vascular homeostasis and is implicated in the development of atherosclerosis. This study examines the influence of oxidative stress on the formation of atherosclerosis, which is facilitated by the vascular milieu. It also provides an overview of the pertinent targets and pharmaceutical approaches for treating this condition.

Microbiome-derived metabolite effects on intestinal barrier integrity and immune cell response to infection

The gut microbiota exerts a significant influence on human health and disease. While compositional changes in the gut microbiota in specific diseases can easily be determined, we lack a detailed mechanistic understanding of how these changes exert effects at the cellular level. However, the putative local and systemic effects on human physiology that are attributed to the gut microbiota are clearly being mediated through molecular communication. Here, we determined the effects of gut microbiome-derived metabolites l-tryptophan, butyrate, trimethylamine (TMA), 3-methyl-4-(trimethylammonio)butanoate (3,4-TMAB), 4-(trimethylammonio)pentanoate (4-TMAP), ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), glycocholic acid (GCA) and benzoate on the first line of defence in the gut. Using in vitro models of intestinal barrier integrity and studying the interaction of macrophages with pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria, we could ascertain the influence of these metabolites at the cellular level at physiologically relevant concentrations. Nearly all metabolites exerted positive effects on barrier function, but butyrate prevented a reduction in transepithelial resistance in the presence of the pathogen Escherichia coli, despite inducing increased apoptosis and exerting increased cytotoxicity. Induction of IL-8 was unaffected by all metabolites, but GCA stimulated increased intra-macrophage growth of E. coli and tumour necrosis-alpha (TNF-α) release. Butyrate, 3,4-TMAB and benzoate all increased TNF-α release independent of bacterial replication. These findings reiterate the complexity of understanding microbiome effects on host physiology and underline that microbiome metabolites are crucial mediators of barrier function and the innate response to infection. Understanding these metabolites at the cellular level will allow us to move towards a better mechanistic understanding of microbiome influence over host physiology, a crucial step in advancing microbiome research.

Pharmacology of Hydrogen Sulfide and Its Donors in Cardiometabolic Diseases

Cardiometabolic diseases (CMDs) are major contributors to global mortality, emphasizing the critical need for novel therapeutic interventions. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has garnered enormous attention as a significant gasotransmitter with various physiological, pathophysiological, and pharmacological impacts within mammalian cardiometabolic systems. In addition to its roles in attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory response, burgeoning research emphasizes the significance of H2S in regulating proteins via persulfidation, a well known modification intricately associated with the pathogenesis of CMDs. This review seeks to investigate recent updates on the physiological actions of endogenous H2S and the pharmacological roles of various H2S donors in addressing diverse aspects of CMDs across cellular, animal, and clinical studies. Of note, advanced methodologies, including multiomics, intestinal microflora analysis, organoid, and single-cell sequencing techniques, are gaining traction due to their ability to offer comprehensive insights into biomedical research. These emerging approaches hold promise in characterizing the pharmacological roles of H2S in health and diseases. We will critically assess the current literature to clarify the roles of H2S in diseases while also delineating the opportunities and challenges they present in H2S-based pharmacotherapy for CMDs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This comprehensive review covers recent developments in H2S biology and pharmacology in cardiometabolic diseases CMDs. Endogenous H2S and its donors show great promise for the management of CMDs by regulating numerous proteins and signaling pathways. The emergence of new technologies will considerably advance the pharmacological research and clinical translation of H2S.

Berberine: Potential preventive and therapeutic strategies for human colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common digestive tract tumor, with incidences continuing to rise. Although modern medicine has extended the survival time of CRC patients, its adverse effects and the financial burden cannot be ignored. CRC is a multi-step process and can be caused by the disturbance of gut microbiome and chronic inflammation's stimulation. Additionally, the presence of precancerous lesions is also a risk factor for CRC. Consequently, scientists are increasingly interested in identifying multi-target, safe, and economical herbal medicine and natural products. This paper summarizes berberine's (BBR) regulatory mechanisms in the occurrence and development of CRC. The findings indicate that BBR regulates gut microbiome homeostasis and controls mucosal inflammation to prevent CRC. In the CRC stage, BBR inhibits cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis, blocks the cell cycle, induces cell apoptosis, regulates cell metabolism, inhibits angiogenesis, and enhances chemosensitivity. BBR plays a role in the overall management of CRC. Therefore, using BBR as an adjunct to CRC prevention and treatment could become a future trend in oncology.

The role of the "gut microbiota-mitochondria" crosstalk in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a neurologic autoimmune disease whose exact pathophysiologic mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Recent studies have shown that the onset and progression of MS are associated with dysbiosis of the gut microbiota. Similarly, a large body of evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction may also have a significant impact on the development of MS. Endosymbiotic theory has found that human mitochondria are microbial in origin and share similar biological characteristics with the gut microbiota. Therefore, gut microbiota and mitochondrial function crosstalk are relevant in the development of MS. However, the relationship between gut microbiota and mitochondrial function in the development of MS is not fully understood. Therefore, by synthesizing previous relevant literature, this paper focuses on the changes in gut microbiota and metabolite composition in the development of MS and the possible mechanisms of the crosstalk between gut microbiota and mitochondrial function in the progression of MS, to provide new therapeutic approaches for the prevention or reduction of MS based on this crosstalk.

Oral Cardiac Drug-Gut Microbiota Interaction in Chronic Heart Failure Patients: An Emerging Association

Regardless of the currently proposed best medical treatment for heart failure patients, the morbidity and mortality rates remain high. This is due to several reasons, including the interaction between oral cardiac drug administration and gut microbiota. The relation between drugs (especially antibiotics) and gut microbiota is well established, but it is also known that more than 24% of non-antibiotic drugs affect gut microbiota, altering the microbe's environment and its metabolic products. Heart failure treatment lies mainly in the blockage of neuro-humoral hyper-activation. There is debate as to whether the administration of heart-failure-specific drugs can totally block this hyper-activation, or whether the so-called intestinal dysbiosis that is commonly observed in this group of patients can affect their action. Although there are several reports indicating a strong relation between drug-gut microbiota interplay, little is known about this relation to oral cardiac drugs in chronic heart failure. In this review, we review the contemporary data on a topic that is in its infancy. We aim to produce scientific thoughts and questions and provide reasoning for further clinical investigation.

Human Gut Microbiota in Heart Failure: Trying to Unmask an Emerging Organ

There is a bidirectional relationship between the heart and the gut. The gut microbiota, the community of gut micro-organisms themselves, is an excellent gut-homeostasis keeper since it controls the growth of potentially harmful bacteria and protects the microbiota environment. There is evidence suggesting that a diet rich in fatty acids can be metabolized and converted by gut microbiota and hepatic enzymes to trimethyl-amine N-oxide (TMAO), a product that is associated with atherogenesis, platelet dysfunction, thrombotic events, coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure (HF), and, ultimately, death. HF, by inducing gut ischemia, congestion, and, consequently, gut barrier dysfunction, promotes the intestinal leaking of micro-organisms and their products, facilitating their entrance into circulation and thus stimulating a low-grade inflammation associated with an immune response. Drugs used for HF may alter the gut microbiota, and, conversely, gut microbiota may modify the pharmacokinetic properties of the drugs. The modification of lifestyle based mainly on exercise and a Mediterranean diet, along with the use of pre- or probiotics, may be beneficial for the gut microbiota environment. The potential role of gut microbiota in HF development and progression is the subject of this review.

Butanol Extract of Acanthopanax senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Harms Alleviates Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein E-Deficient Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet

This study investigated the effect of butanol extract of AS (ASBUE) on atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE^-/-) mice. The mice were administered ASBUE (390 or 130 mg/kg/day) or rosuvastatin (RSV) via oral gavage for eight weeks. In ApoE^-/- mice, ASBUE suppressed the abnormal body weight gain and improved serum and liver biochemical indicators. ASBUE remarkably reduced the aortic plaque area, improved liver pathological conditions, and lipid metabolism abnormalities, and altered the intestinal microbiota structure in ApoE^-/- mice. In the vascular tissue of ASBUE-treated mice, P-IKKβ, P-NFκB, and P-IκBα levels tended to decrease, while IκB-α increased in high fat-diet-fed atherosclerotic mice. These findings demonstrated the anti-atherosclerotic potential of ASBUE, which is mediated by the interaction between the gut microbiota and lipid metabolism and regulated via the Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. This work paves the groundwork for subsequent studies to develop innovative drugs to treat atherosclerosis.