The CLC-5 2Cl(-)/H(+) exchange transporter in endosomal function and Dent's disease

Bacterial Magnetosomes Release Iron Ions and Induce Regulation of Iron Homeostasis in Endothelial Cells

Magnetosomes (MAGs) extracted from magnetotactic bacteria are well-defined membrane-enveloped single-domain magnetic nanoparticles. Due to their superior magnetic and structural properties, MAGs constitute potential materials that can be manipulated via genetic and chemical engineering for use in biomedical and biotechnological applications. However, the long-term effects exerted by MAGs on cells are of concern in the context of in vivo applications. Meanwhile, it remains relatively unclear which mechanisms are employed by cells to process and degrade MAGs. Hence, a better understanding of MAGs' degradation and fundamental signal modulations occurring throughout this process is essential. In the current study, we investigated the potential actions of MAGs on endothelial cells over a 10-day period. MAGs were retained in cells and found to gradually gather in the lysosome-like vesicles. Meanwhile, iron-ion release was observed. Proteomics further revealed a potential cellular mechanism underlying MAGs degradation, in which a group of proteins associated with vesicle biogenesis, and lysosomal enzymes, which participate in protein hydrolysis and lipid degradation, were rapidly upregulated. Moreover, the released iron triggered the regulation of the iron metabolic profiles. However, given that the levels of cell oxidative damage were relatively stable, the released iron ions were handled by iron metabolic profiles and incorporated into normal metabolic routes. These results provide insights into the cell response to MAGs degradation that may improve their in vivo applications.

The Less Well-Known Little Brothers: The SLC9B/NHA Sodium Proton Exchanger Subfamily—Structure, Function, Regulation and Potential Drug-Target Approaches

The SLC9 gene family encodes Na+/H+ exchangers (NHEs), a group of membrane transport proteins critically involved in the regulation of cytoplasmic and organellar pH, cell volume, as well as systemic acid-base and volume homeostasis. NHEs of the SLC9A subfamily (NHE 1–9) are well-known for their roles in human physiology and disease. Much less is known about the two members of the SLC9B subfamily, NHA1 and NHA2, which share higher similarity to prokaryotic NHEs than the SLC9A paralogs. NHA2 (also known as SLC9B2) is ubiquitously expressed and has recently been shown to participate in renal blood pressure and electrolyte regulation, insulin secretion and systemic glucose homeostasis. In addition, NHA2 has been proposed to contribute to the pathogenesis of polycystic kidney disease, the most common inherited kidney disease in humans. NHA1 (also known as SLC9B1) is mainly expressed in testis and is important for sperm motility and thus male fertility, but has not been associated with human disease thus far. In this review, we present a summary of the structure, function and regulation of expression of the SLC9B subfamily members, focusing primarily on the better-studied SLC9B paralog, NHA2. Furthermore, we will review the potential of the SLC9B subfamily as drug targets.

The sodium/proton exchanger NHA2 regulates blood pressure through a WNK4-NCC dependent pathway in the kidney

NHA2 is a sodium/proton exchanger associated with arterial hypertension in humans, but the role of NHA2 in kidney function and blood pressure homeostasis is currently unknown. Here we show that NHA2 localizes almost exclusively to distal convoluted tubules in the kidney. NHA2 knock-out mice displayed reduced blood pressure, normocalcemic hypocalciuria and an attenuated response to the thiazide diuretic hydrochlorothiazide. Phosphorylation of the thiazide-sensitive sodium/chloride cotransporter NCC and its upstream activating kinase Ste20/SPS1-related proline/alanine rich kinase (SPAK), as well as the abundance of with no lysine kinase 4 (WNK4), were significantly reduced in the kidneys of NHA2 knock-out mice. In vitro experiments recapitulated these findings and revealed increased WNK4 ubiquitylation and enhanced proteasomal WNK4 degradation upon loss of NHA2. The effect of NHA2 on WNK4 stability was dependent from the ubiquitylation pathway protein Kelch-like 3 (KLHL3). More specifically, loss of NHA2 selectively attenuated KLHL3 phosphorylation and blunted protein kinase A- and protein kinase C-mediated decrease of WNK4 degradation. Phenotype analysis of NHA2/NCC double knock-out mice supported the notion that NHA2 affects blood pressure homeostasis by a kidney-specific and NCC-dependent mechanism. Thus, our data show that NHA2 as a critical component of the WNK4-NCC pathway and is a novel regulator of blood pressure homeostasis in the kidney.

A tale of two CLCs: biophysical insights toward understanding ClC-5 and ClC-7 function in endosomes and lysosomes

The CLC protein family comprises both Cl(-) channels and H(+) -coupled anion transporters. The understanding of the critical role of CLC proteins in a number of physiological functions has greatly contributed to a revision of the classical paradigm that attributed to Cl(-) ions only a marginal role in human physiology. The endosomal ClC-5 and the lysosomal ClC-7 are the best characterized human CLC transporters. Their dysfunction causes Dent's disease and osteopetrosis, respectively. It had been originally proposed that they would provide a Cl(-) shunt conductance allowing efficient acidification of intracellular compartments. However, this model seems to conflict with the transport properties of these proteins and with recent physiological evidence. Currently, there is no consensus on their specific physiological role. CLC proteins present also a number of peculiar biophysical properties, such as the dimeric architecture, the co-existence of intrinsically different thermodynamic modes of transport based on similar structural principles, and the gating mechanism recently emerging for the transporters, just to name a few. This review focuses on the biophysical properties and physiological roles of ClC-5 and ClC-7.

Two-pore channels (TPCs): current controversies

Much excitement surrounded the proposal that a family of endo-lysosomal channels, the two-pore channels (TPCs) were the long sought after targets of the Ca(2+) -mobilising messenger, nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP). However, the role of TPCs in NAADP signalling may be more complex than originally envisaged. First, NAADP may not bind directly to TPCs but via an accessory protein. Second, two papers recently challenged the notion that TPCs are NAADP-regulated Ca(2+) channels by suggesting that they are highly selective Na(+) channels regulated by the lipid phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate and by ATP. This paper aims critically to evaluate the evidence for TPCs as NAADP targets and to discuss how the new findings fit in with what we know about endo-lysosomal Ca(2+) stores.

A single point mutation reveals gating of the human ClC-5 Cl-/H+ antiporter

ClC-5 is a 2Cl⁻/1H⁺ antiporter highly expressed in endosomes of proximal tubule cells. It is essential for endocytosis and mutations in ClC-5 cause Dent's disease, potentially leading to renal failure. However, the physiological role of ClC-5 is still unclear. One of the main issues is whether the strong rectification of ClC-5 currents observed in heterologous systems, with currents elicited only at positive voltages, is preserved in vivo and what is the origin of this rectification. In this work we identified a ClC-5 mutation, D76H, which, besides the typical outward currents of the wild-type (WT), shows inward tail currents at negative potentials that allow the estimation of the reversal of ClC-5 currents for the first time. A detailed analysis of the dependence of these inward tail currents on internal and external pH and [Cl⁻] shows that they are generated by a coupled transport of Cl⁻ and H⁺ with a 2 : 1 stoichiometry. From this result we conclude that the inward tail currents are caused by a gating mechanism that regulates ClC-5 transport activity and not by a major alteration of the transport mechanism itself. This implies that the strong rectification of the currents of WT ClC-5 is at least in part caused by a gating mechanism that activates the transporter at positive potentials. These results elucidate the biophysical properties of ClC-5 and contribute to the understanding of its physiological role.

Novel diuretic targets

As the molecular revolution continues to inform a deeper understanding of disease mechanisms and pathways, there exist unprecedented opportunities for translating discoveries at the bench into novel therapies for improving human health. Despite the availability of several different classes of antihypertensive medications, only about half of the 67 million Americans with hypertension manage their blood pressure appropriately. A broader selection of structurally diverse antihypertensive drugs acting through different mechanisms would provide clinicians with greater flexibility in developing effective treatment regimens for an increasingly diverse and aging patient population. An emerging body of physiological, genetic, and pharmacological evidence has implicated several renal ion-transport proteins, or regulators thereof, as novel, yet clinically unexploited, diuretic targets. These include the renal outer medullary potassium channel, ROMK (Kir1.1), Kir4.1/5.1 potassium channels, ClC-Ka/b chloride channels, UTA/B urea transporters, the chloride/bicarbonate exchanger pendrin, and the STE20/SPS1-related proline/alanine-rich kinase (SPAK). The molecular pharmacology of these putative targets is poorly developed or lacking altogether; however, recent efforts by a few academic and pharmaceutical laboratories have begun to lessen this critical barrier. Here, we review the evidence in support of the aforementioned proteins as novel diuretic targets and highlight examples where progress toward developing small-molecule pharmacology has been made.