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Pungor JR, Niell CM. The neural basis of visual processing and behavior in cephalopods. Curr Biol 2023; 33:R1106-R1118. [PMID: 37875093 PMCID: PMC10664291 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Coleoid cephalopods (octopuses, squids and cuttlefishes) are the only branch of the animal kingdom outside of vertebrates to have evolved both a large brain and camera-type eyes. They are highly dependent on vision, with the majority of their brain devoted to visual processing. Their excellent vision supports a range of advanced visually guided behaviors, from navigation and prey capture, to the ability to camouflage based on their surroundings. However, their brain organization is radically different from that of vertebrates, as well as other invertebrates, providing a unique opportunity to explore how a novel neural architecture for vision is organized and functions. Relatively few studies have examined the cephalopod visual system using current neuroscience approaches, to the extent that there has not even been a measurement of single-cell receptive fields in their central visual system. Therefore, there remains a tremendous amount that is unknown about the neural basis of vision in these extraordinary animals. Here, we review the existing knowledge of the organization and function of the cephalopod visual system to provide a framework for examining the neural circuits and computational mechanisms mediating their remarkable visual capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judit R Pungor
- Department of Biology and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
| | - Cristopher M Niell
- Department of Biology and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA.
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2
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Pungor JR, Allen VA, Songco-Casey JO, Niell CM. Functional organization of visual responses in the octopus optic lobe. Curr Biol 2023; 33:2784-2793.e3. [PMID: 37343556 PMCID: PMC11056276 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.05.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Cephalopods are highly visual animals with camera-type eyes, large brains, and a rich repertoire of visually guided behaviors. However, the cephalopod brain evolved independently from those of other highly visual species, such as vertebrates; therefore, the neural circuits that process sensory information are profoundly different. It is largely unknown how their powerful but unique visual system functions, as there have been no direct neural measurements of visual responses in the cephalopod brain. In this study, we used two-photon calcium imaging to record visually evoked responses in the primary visual processing center of the octopus central brain, the optic lobe, to determine how basic features of the visual scene are represented and organized. We found spatially localized receptive fields for light (ON) and dark (OFF) stimuli, which were retinotopically organized across the optic lobe, demonstrating a hallmark of visual system organization shared across many species. An examination of these responses revealed transformations of the visual representation across the layers of the optic lobe, including the emergence of the OFF pathway and increased size selectivity. We also identified asymmetries in the spatial processing of ON and OFF stimuli, which suggest unique circuit mechanisms for form processing that may have evolved to suit the specific demands of processing an underwater visual scene. This study provides insight into the neural processing and functional organization of the octopus visual system, highlighting both shared and unique aspects, and lays a foundation for future studies of the neural circuits that mediate visual processing and behavior in cephalopods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judit R Pungor
- Department of Biology and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405, USA.
| | - V Angelique Allen
- Department of Biology and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405, USA
| | - Jeremea O Songco-Casey
- Department of Biology and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405, USA
| | - Cristopher M Niell
- Department of Biology and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405, USA.
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3
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Lucky NS, Tandang KJL, Tumilba MB, Ihara R, Yamaoka K, Yasugi M, Hori M. Dynamics of Laterality in the Cuttlefish Sepia recurvirostra through Interactions with Prey Prawns. Zoolog Sci 2022; 39:545-553. [PMID: 36495489 DOI: 10.2108/zs220022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions based on laterality have recently been observed between fishes and their prey populations. Maintenance of antisymmetric dimorphism by frequency-dependent selection has been reported in fish, but has not been observed in invertebrates. Over 10 years, we investigated long-term changes in the "ratio of laterality" (frequency of righty morphs in a population) in the cuttlefish Sepia recurvirostra and its potential prey prawns Penaeus semisulcatus and Metapenaeus endeavouri in the Visayan Sea, the Philippines. The morphological laterality of cuttlefish and prey prawns was defined by measuring the asymmetry of the cuttlebone and carapace, respectively. Cuttlefish and prey prawns showed morphological antisymmetry, being composed with righty morphs and lefty morphs. The ratio of laterality of cuttlefish and one prey prawn oscillated significantly, but the oscillation was not strongly synchronized. The ratio of laterality of cuttlefish followed that of the prey prawn, indicating that predation biased to each laterality occurred in relation to their laterality. These results suggest that the lateral dimorphism of cuttlefish is maintained through frequency-dependent selection on lateral morphs of the predator cuttlefish and prey prawns. Our findings provide new insight into the ecological significance and antisymmetry maintenance mechanism in relation to interspecific interactions in marine invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nahid Sultana Lucky
- Department of Fisheries Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Fisheries, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh
| | - Kristine Joy L Tandang
- Department of Science and Technology-Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (DOST-PCAARRD), Philippines
| | - Michelle B Tumilba
- Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanology, College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, The University of the Philippines Visayas, Philippines
| | - Ryo Ihara
- Fisheries Distribution Division, Department of Fisheries, Kochi Prefecture, Japan
| | - Kosaku Yamaoka
- Graduate School of Kuroshio Science, Kochi University, Kochi 783-8520, Japan
| | - Masaki Yasugi
- Center for Optical Research and Education, Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya City, Tochigi 321-8585, Japan
| | - Michio Hori
- Kyoto University, Yoshida-Honmachi, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan,
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Bidel F, Bennett NC, Wardill TJ. Octopus bimaculoides' arm recruitment and use during visually evoked prey capture. Curr Biol 2022; 32:4727-4733.e3. [PMID: 36130600 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Octopus' limb hyper-redundancy complicates traditional motor control system theory due to its extensive sensory inputs, subsequent decision-making, and arm coordination. Octopuses are thought to reduce flexibility control complexity by relying on highly stereotypical motor primitives (e.g., reaching1-4 and crawling5) and multi-level processes to coordinate movement,6,7 utilizing extensive peripheral nervous system (PNS) processing.2,8,9 Division of labor along the anterior-posterior axis10 and limb specialization of the four anterior arms in T-maze food retrieval11 further simplify control. However, specific arm recruitment and coordination during visually guided reaching behavior remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated visually evoked Octopus bimaculoides' prey capture capabilities12,13 by eliciting and examining prey-specific arm recruitment. When striking crabs, octopuses preferred synchronous arm recruitment, while sequential arm recruitment with a characteristic swaying movement is employed for shrimp. Such behavioral selection aligns with specific prey escape strategies and the octopus' flexible arm biomechanical constraints. Although side bias existed, we found significant bilateral symmetry, with one side being functionally a mirror of the other rather than anterior arm use being functionally equal and differing to posterior arm use. Among arms, the second limb is unequivocally dominant for goal-directed monocularly driven prey capture. Although the eight arms share gross anatomy and are considered equipotential,10,14 such arm use for specific actions could reflect subtle evolutionary adaptations. Finally, we quantitatively show, corroborating earlier observations,10,15 that octopuses employ a dimension reduction strategy by actively deciding to recruit adjacent arms over other available arms during either sequential or synchronous visually evoked prey attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavie Bidel
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.
| | - Natalie C Bennett
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA; Department of Biomedical Informatics and Computational Biology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Trevor J Wardill
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA; Department of Biomedical Informatics and Computational Biology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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5
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Ponte G, Chiandetti C, Edelman DB, Imperadore P, Pieroni EM, Fiorito G. Cephalopod Behavior: From Neural Plasticity to Consciousness. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 15:787139. [PMID: 35495582 PMCID: PMC9039538 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.787139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is only in recent decades that subjective experience - or consciousness - has become a legitimate object of scientific inquiry. As such, it represents perhaps the greatest challenge facing neuroscience today. Subsumed within this challenge is the study of subjective experience in non-human animals: a particularly difficult endeavor that becomes even more so, as one crosses the great evolutionary divide between vertebrate and invertebrate phyla. Here, we explore the possibility of consciousness in one group of invertebrates: cephalopod molluscs. We believe such a review is timely, particularly considering cephalopods' impressive learning and memory abilities, rich behavioral repertoire, and the relative complexity of their nervous systems and sensory capabilities. Indeed, in some cephalopods, these abilities are so sophisticated that they are comparable to those of some higher vertebrates. Following the criteria and framework outlined for the identification of hallmarks of consciousness in non-mammalian species, here we propose that cephalopods - particularly the octopus - provide a unique test case among invertebrates for examining the properties and conditions that, at the very least, afford a basal faculty of consciousness. These include, among others: (i) discriminatory and anticipatory behaviors indicating a strong link between perception and memory recall; (ii) the presence of neural substrates representing functional analogs of thalamus and cortex; (iii) the neurophysiological dynamics resembling the functional signatures of conscious states in mammals. We highlight the current lack of evidence as well as potentially informative areas that warrant further investigation to support the view expressed here. Finally, we identify future research directions for the study of consciousness in these tantalizing animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Ponte
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | | | - David B. Edelman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
- Association for Cephalopod Research ‘CephRes' a non-profit Organization, Naples, Italy
| | - Pamela Imperadore
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Graziano Fiorito
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
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6
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Allometry for Eyes and Optic Lobes in Oval Squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana) with Special Reference to Their Ontogenetic Asymmetry. Symmetry (Basel) 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/sym14040644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Eyes develop in relation to body size and brain area for visual processing in some vertebrates. Meanwhile, it is well known that many animals exhibit left–right asymmetry in both morphology and behavior, namely, lateralization. However, it remains unclear whether the eyes and visual processing brain areas synchronously develop for their asymmetry. Oval squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana) exhibits lateralization of optic lobe volume and left or right eye usage toward specific targets during their ontogeny. We address the question of how left–right asymmetry of the eyes and optic lobes exhibit an allometric pattern. To examine this question, we estimated the left and right volumes of eyes and optic lobes using microcomputed tomography. We found that, for the optic lobe volume, the right enlargement that appeared at ages 45 and 80 days then shifted to the left at age 120 days. In contrast, the volume of eyes did not show any left–right asymmetries from hatching to age 120 days. We also found that the volume of the eyes and optic lobes showed a slower increase than that of the whole-body size. Within these two visually related organs, the eyes grew faster than the optic lobes until age 120 days. These results are discussed in the context of the survival strategy of oval squid that form schools, two months post-hatching.
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7
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Karenina K, Giljov A. Lateralization in feeding is food type specific and impacts feeding success in wild birds. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8598. [PMID: 35154659 PMCID: PMC8820115 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Current research suggests that hemispheric lateralization has significant fitness consequences. Foraging, as a basic survival function, is a perfect research model to test the fitness impact of lateralization. However, our understanding of lateralized feeding behavior is based predominantly on laboratory studies, while the evidence from wild animals in natural settings is limited. Here we studied visual lateralization in yellow-footed green pigeons (Treron phoenicoptera) feeding in the wild. We aimed to test whether different types of food objects requiring different searching strategies elicit different eye/hemisphere biases. When feeding on relatively large, uniformly colored food objects (mahua flowers) which can be present or absent in the viewed patch, the majority of pigeons relied mostly on the left eye-right hemisphere. In contrast, when feeding on smaller and more abundant food objects, with color cues signaling its ripeness (sacred figs), right-eye (left-hemisphere) preference prevailed. Our results demonstrate that oppositely directed visual biases previously found in different experimental tasks occur in natural feeding situations in the form of lateralized viewing strategies specific for different types of food. The results suggest that pigeons rely on the hemisphere providing more advantages for the consumption of the particular type of food objects, implying the relevance of brain lateralization as a plastic adaptation to ecological demands. We assessed the success of food discrimination and consumption to examine the link between lateralization and cognitive performance. The use of the preferred eye resulted in better discrimination of food items. Discrimination accuracy and feeding efficiency were significantly higher in lateralized individuals. The results showed that visual lateralization impacted pigeons' feeding success, implicating important fitness benefits associated with lateralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Karenina
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology Saint Petersburg State University Saint Petersburg Russia
| | - Andrey Giljov
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology Saint Petersburg State University Saint Petersburg Russia
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8
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Sakurai Y, Ikeda Y. Visual and brain lateralization during the posthatching phase in squid under solitary and group conditions. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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9
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Abstract
Birch et al. suggest that consciousness in any animal group must involve four aspects—perceptual richness, evaluative richness (affectivity), integration at one time (unity), and integration across time (temporality). This review will evaluate integration at one time in cephalopods, an area that offers many challenges. First, like most animals with a bilateral nervous system, cephalopods have laterality of brain function, and this challenges unity of function. Second, unlike most mammals, cephalopods have a heavy allocation of both neural and behavioural control to the periphery, especially in the case of octopuses. Third, like all animals, cephalopods gather information through several senses and there can be both unity within and competition between such information, challenging unity. Information gained across all these areas needs to be evaluated both in terms of the methodology used to gather information and the results of the investigation.
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10
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Visual Field Analysis: A reliable method to score left and right eye use using automated tracking. Behav Res Methods 2021; 54:1715-1724. [PMID: 34625917 PMCID: PMC9374601 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01702-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Brain and behavioural asymmetries have been documented in various taxa. Many of these asymmetries involve preferential left and right eye use. However, measuring eye use through manual frame-by-frame analyses from video recordings is laborious and may lead to biases. Recent progress in technology has allowed the development of accurate tracking techniques for measuring animal behaviour. Amongst these techniques, DeepLabCut, a Python-based tracking toolbox using transfer learning with deep neural networks, offers the possibility to track different body parts with unprecedented accuracy. Exploiting the potentialities of DeepLabCut, we developed Visual Field Analysis, an additional open-source application for extracting eye use data. To our knowledge, this is the first application that can automatically quantify left–right preferences in eye use. Here we test the performance of our application in measuring preferential eye use in young domestic chicks. The comparison with manual scoring methods revealed a near perfect correlation in the measures of eye use obtained by Visual Field Analysis. With our application, eye use can be analysed reliably, objectively and at a fine scale in different experimental paradigms.
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11
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Cavelius M, Brunel T, Didier A. Lessons from behavioral lateralization in olfaction. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 227:685-696. [PMID: 34596756 PMCID: PMC8843900 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02390-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Sensory information, sampled by sensory organs positioned on each side of the body may play a crucial role in organizing brain lateralization. This question is of particular interest with regard to the growing evidence of alteration in lateralization in several psychiatric conditions. In this context, the olfactory system, an ancient, mostly ipsilateral and well-conserved system across phylogeny may prove an interesting model system to understand the behavioral significance of brain lateralization. Here, we focused on behavioral data in vertebrates and non-vertebrates, suggesting that the two hemispheres of the brain differentially processed olfactory cues to achieve diverse sensory operations, such as detection, discrimination, identification of behavioral valuable cues or learning. These include reports across different species on best performances with one nostril or the other or odorant active sampling by one nostril or the other, depending on odorants or contexts. In some species, hints from peripheral anatomical or functional asymmetry were proposed to explain these asymmetries in behavior. Instigations of brain activation or more rarely of brain connectivity evoked by odorants revealed a complex picture with regards to asymmetric patterns which is discussed with respect to behavioral data. Along the steps of the discussed literature, we propose avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Cavelius
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center (CRNL), Neuropop Team, Lyon, France.,CNRS 5292, Inserm 1028, Lyon 1 University, Lyon, France
| | - Théo Brunel
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center (CRNL), Neuropop Team, Lyon, France.,CNRS 5292, Inserm 1028, Lyon 1 University, Lyon, France
| | - Anne Didier
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center (CRNL), Neuropop Team, Lyon, France. .,CNRS 5292, Inserm 1028, Lyon 1 University, Lyon, France.
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12
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Abstract
It is always difficult to even advance possible dimensions of consciousness, but Birch et al., 2020 have suggested four possible dimensions and this review discusses the first, perceptual richness, with relation to octopuses. They advance acuity, bandwidth, and categorization power as possible components. It is first necessary to realize that sensory richness does not automatically lead to perceptual richness and this capacity may not be accessed by consciousness. Octopuses do not discriminate light wavelength frequency (color) but rather its plane of polarization, a dimension that we do not understand. Their eyes are laterally placed on the head, leading to monocular vision and head movements that give a sequential rather than simultaneous view of items, possibly consciously planned. Details of control of the rich sensorimotor system of the arms, with 3/5 of the neurons of the nervous system, may normally not be accessed to the brain and thus to consciousness. The chromatophore-based skin appearance system is likely open loop, and not available to the octopus’ vision. Conversely, in a laboratory situation that is not ecologically valid for the octopus, learning about shapes and extents of visual figures was extensive and flexible, likely consciously planned. Similarly, octopuses’ local place in and navigation around space can be guided by light polarization plane and visual landmark location and is learned and monitored. The complex array of chemical cues delivered by water and on surfaces does not fit neatly into the components above and has barely been tested but might easily be described as perceptually rich. The octopus’ curiosity and drive to investigate and gain more information may mean that, apart from richness of any stimulus situation, they are consciously driven to seek out more information. This review suggests that cephalopods may not have a similar type of intelligence as the ‘higher’ vertebrates, they may not have similar dimensions or contents of consciousness, but that such a capacity is present nevertheless.
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13
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Horses show individual level lateralisation when inspecting an unfamiliar and unexpected stimulus. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255688. [PMID: 34351986 PMCID: PMC8341651 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals must attend to a diverse array of stimuli in their environments. The emotional valence and salience of a stimulus can affect how this information is processed in the brain. Many species preferentially attend to negatively valent stimuli using the sensory organs on the left side of their body and hence the right hemisphere of their brain. Here, we investigated the lateralisation of visual attention to the rapid appearance of a stimulus (an inflated balloon) designed to induce an avoidance reaction and a negatively valent emotional state in 77 Italian saddle horses. Horses’ eyes are laterally positioned on the head, and each eye projects primarily to the contralateral hemisphere, allowing eye use to be a proxy for preferential processing in one hemisphere of the brain. We predicted that horses would inspect the novel and unexpected stimulus with their left eye and hence right hemisphere. We found that horses primarily inspected the balloon with one eye, and most horses had a preferred eye to do so, however, we did not find a population level tendency for this to be the left or the right eye. The strength of this preference tended to decrease over time, with the horses using their non-preferred eye to inspect the balloon increasingly as the trial progressed. Our results confirm a lateralised eye use tendency when viewing negatively emotionally valent stimuli in horses, in agreement with previous findings. However, there was not any alignment of lateralisation at the group level in our sample, suggesting that the expression of lateralisation in horses depends on the sample population and testing context.
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Winsor AM, Pagoti GF, Daye DJ, Cheries EW, Cave KR, Jakob EM. What gaze direction can tell us about cognitive processes in invertebrates. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 564:43-54. [PMID: 33413978 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Most visually guided animals shift their gaze using body movements, eye movements, or both to gather information selectively from their environments. Psychological studies of eye movements have advanced our understanding of perceptual and cognitive processes that mediate visual attention in humans and other vertebrates. However, much less is known about how these processes operate in other organisms, particularly invertebrates. We here make the case that studies of invertebrate cognition can benefit by adding precise measures of gaze direction. To accomplish this, we briefly review the human visual attention literature and outline four research themes and several experimental paradigms that could be extended to invertebrates. We briefly review selected studies where the measurement of gaze direction in invertebrates has provided new insights, and we suggest future areas of exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Winsor
- Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
| | - Guilherme F Pagoti
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, 321, Travessa 14, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP, 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Daniel J Daye
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA; Graduate Program in Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Erik W Cheries
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Kyle R Cave
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Jakob
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
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15
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Schnell AK, Clayton NS. Cephalopods: Ambassadors for rethinking cognition. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 564:27-36. [PMID: 33390247 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.12.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Traditional approaches in comparative cognition have a long history of focusing on a narrow range of vertebrate species. However, in recent years the range of model species has expanded. Despite this development, invertebrate taxa are still largely neglected in comparative cognition, which limits our ability to locate the origins of cognitive traits. The time has come to rethink cognition and develop a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive evolution by expanding comparative analyses to include a diverse range of invertebrate taxa. In this review, we contend that cephalopods are suitable ambassadors for rethinking cognition. Cephalopods have large complex brains, exhibit sophisticated behavioral traits, and increasing evidence suggests that they possess complex cognitive abilities once thought to be unique to large-brained vertebrates. Comparing cephalopods with vertebrates, whose cognition has evolved independently, provides prominent opportunities to circumvent current limitations in comparative cognition that have arisen from traditional vertebrate comparisons. Increased efforts in investigating the cognitive abilities of cephalopods have also led to important welfare-related improvements. These large-brained molluscs are paving the way for a more inclusive approach to investigating cognitive evolution that we hope will extend to other invertebrate taxa.
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16
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Kuo TH, Chiao CC. Learned valuation during forage decision-making in cuttlefish. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:201602. [PMID: 33489290 PMCID: PMC7813266 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.201602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Decision-making, when humans and other animals choose between two options, is not always based on the absolute values of the options but can also depend on their relative values. The present study examines whether decision-making by cuttlefish is dependent on relative values learned from previous experience. Cuttlefish preferred a larger quantity when making a choice between one or two shrimps (1 versus 2) during a two-alternative forced choice. However, after cuttlefish were primed under conditions where they were given a small reward for choosing one shrimp in a no shrimp versus one shrimp test (0 versus 1) six times in a row, they chose one shrimp significantly more frequently in the 1 versus 2 test. This reversed preference for a smaller quantity was not due to satiation at the time of decision-making, as cuttlefish fed a small shrimp six times without any choice test prior to the experiment still preferred two shrimps significantly more often in a subsequent 1 versus 2 test. This suggests that the preference of one shrimp in the quantity comparison test occurs via a process of learned valuation. Foraging preference in cuttlefish thus depends on the relative value of previous prey choices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Hsin Kuo
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
- Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Chuan-Chin Chiao
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
- Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
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17
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Shen J, Fang K, Liu P, Fan Y, Yang J, Shen D, Song J, Fang G. Low-frequency electroencephalogram oscillations govern left-eye lateralization during anti-predatory responses in the music frog. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb232637. [PMID: 32967996 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.232637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Visual lateralization is widespread for prey and anti-predation in numerous taxa. However, it is still unknown how the brain governs this asymmetry. In this study, we conducted behavioral and electrophysiological experiments to evaluate anti-predatory behaviors and dynamic brain activities in Emei music frogs (Nidirana daunchina), to explore the potential eye bias for anti-predation and the underlying neural mechanisms. To do this, predator stimuli (a model snake head and a leaf as a control) were moved around the subjects in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions at steady velocity. We counted the number of anti-predatory responses and measured electroencephalogram (EEG) power spectra for each band and brain area (telencephalon, diencephalon and mesencephalon). Our results showed that (1) no significant eye preferences could be found for the control (leaf); however, the laterality index was significantly lower than zero when the predator stimulus was moved anti-clockwise, suggesting that left-eye advantage exists in this species for anti-predation; (2) compared with no stimulus in the visual field, the power spectra of delta and alpha bands were significantly greater when the predator stimulus was moved into the left visual field anti-clockwise; and, (3) generally, the power spectra of each band in the right-hemisphere for the left visual field were higher than those in the left counterpart. These results support that the left eye mediates the monitoring of a predator in music frogs and lower-frequency EEG oscillations govern this visual lateralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangyan Shen
- Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation (Ministry of Education), China West Normal University, No. 1 Shi Da Road, Nanchong, 637009 Sichuan, China
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Ke Fang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
| | - Ping Liu
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Yanzhu Fan
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Di Shen
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Jinjin Song
- School of Life Science, Anhui University, Hefei, 230601 Anhui, China
| | - Guangzhan Fang
- Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation (Ministry of Education), China West Normal University, No. 1 Shi Da Road, Nanchong, 637009 Sichuan, China
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, 610041 Sichuan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, 100049 Beijing, China
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18
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Birch J, Schnell AK, Clayton NS. Dimensions of Animal Consciousness. Trends Cogn Sci 2020; 24:789-801. [PMID: 32830051 PMCID: PMC7116194 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
How does consciousness vary across the animal kingdom? Are some animals 'more conscious' than others? This article presents a multidimensional framework for understanding interspecies variation in states of consciousness. The framework distinguishes five key dimensions of variation: perceptual richness, evaluative richness, integration at a time, integration across time, and self-consciousness. For each dimension, existing experiments that bear on it are reviewed and future experiments are suggested. By assessing a given species against each dimension, we can construct a consciousness profile for that species. On this framework, there is no single scale along which species can be ranked as more or less conscious. Rather, each species has its own distinctive consciousness profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Birch
- Centre for Philosophy of Natural and Social Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London, WC2A 2AE, UK.
| | - Alexandra K Schnell
- Comparative Cognition Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Nicola S Clayton
- Comparative Cognition Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
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19
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Switching from mesopredator to apex predator: how do responses vary in amphibians adapted to cave living? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02909-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The effective detection of both prey and predators is pivotal for the survival of mesopredators. However, the condition of being a mesopredator is strongly context dependent. Here we focus on two aquatic caudate species that have colonised caves: the Pyrenean newt (Calotriton asper) and the olm (Proteus anguinus). The former maintains both surface and subterranean populations, while only cave-adapted populations of the latter exist. Both species are apex predators in underground waterbodies, while the Pyrenean newt is a mesopredator in surface waterbodies. Shifting to a higher level of the trophic web through colonising caves may promote the loss of anti-predator response against surface apex predators, and an increase in the ability to detect prey. To test these two non-exclusive hypotheses, we integrated classical behavioural characterisations with a novel approach: the assessment of lateralisation (i.e. preference for one body side exposure). Behavioural experiments were performed using laboratory-reared individuals. We performed 684 trials on 39 Pyrenean newts and eight olms. Under darkness and light conditions, we tested how exposure to different chemical cues (predatory fish, prey and unknown scent) affected individuals’ activity and lateralisation. Both cave and surface Pyrenean newts responded to predator cues, while olms did not. In Pyrenean newts, predator cues reduced the time spent in movement and time spent in lateralisation associated with hunting. Our results show that predator recognition is maintained in a species where recently separated populations inhabit environments lacking of higher predators, while such behaviour tends to be lost in populations with longer history of adaptation.
Significance statement
Predator recognition can be maintained in animals adapted to predator free habitats, but varies with their history of adaptation. Species that are not at the apex of the food web can become top predators if they colonise subterranean environments. We compared the behavioural responses of the olm, a strictly cave species with a long underground evolutionary history, and of the Pyrenean newt, a facultative cave species that also has stream-dwelling populations. Moreover, we integrated a classical behavioural characterisation, such as movement detection, with a novel approach: the assessment of lateralisation. While olms do not respond to external predators scent, cave-dwelling newts still recognise it. This clearly indicates that predator recognition is still maintained in species that have colonised predator-free environments more recently.
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20
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Schnell AK, Jozet-Alves C, Hall KC, Radday L, Hanlon RT. Fighting and mating success in giant Australian cuttlefish is influenced by behavioural lateralization. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 286:20182507. [PMID: 30862306 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.2507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioural lateralization is widespread. Yet, a fundamental question remains, how can lateralization be evolutionary stable when individuals lateralized in one direction often significantly outnumber individuals lateralized in the opposite direction? A recently developed game theory model predicts that fitness consequences which occur during intraspecific interactions may be driving population-level lateralization as an evolutionary stable strategy. This model predicts that: (i) minority-type individuals exist because they are more likely to adopt unpredictable fighting behaviours during competitive interactions (e.g. fighting); and (ii) majority-type individuals exist because there is a fitness advantage in having their biases synchronized with other conspecifics during interactions that require coordination (e.g. mating). We tested these predictions by investigating biases in giant Australian cuttlefish during fighting and mating interactions. During fighting, most male cuttlefish favoured the left eye and these males showed higher contest escalation; but minority-type individuals with a right-eye bias achieved higher fighting success. During mating interactions, most male cuttlefish favoured the left eye to inspect females. Furthermore, most male cuttlefish approached the female's right side during a mating attempt and these males achieved higher mating success. Our data support the hypothesis that population-level biases are an evolutionary consequence of the fitness advantages involved in intraspecific interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra K Schnell
- 1 Normandie Université, UNICAEN, University of Rennes, CNRS , UMR EthoS 6552, Caen , France
| | - Christelle Jozet-Alves
- 1 Normandie Université, UNICAEN, University of Rennes, CNRS , UMR EthoS 6552, Caen , France
| | - Karina C Hall
- 2 National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross University and NSW Department of Primary Industries , Coffs Harbour , Australia
| | - Léa Radday
- 1 Normandie Université, UNICAEN, University of Rennes, CNRS , UMR EthoS 6552, Caen , France
| | - Roger T Hanlon
- 3 Marine Biological Laboratory , Woods Hole, MA 02543 , USA
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21
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Vallortigara G, Rogers LJ. A function for the bicameral mind. Cortex 2019; 124:274-285. [PMID: 32058074 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2019.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Why do the left and right sides of the brain have different functions? Having a lateralized brain, in which each hemisphere processes sensory inputs differently and carries out different functions, is common in vertebrates, and it has now been reported for invertebrates too. Experiments with several animal species have shown that having a lateralized brain can enhance the capacity to perform two tasks at the same time. Thus, the different specializations of the left and right sides of the brain seem to increase brain efficiency. Other advantages may involve control of action that, in Bilateria, may be confounded by separate and independent sensory processing and motor outputs on the left and right sides. Also, the opportunity for increased perceptual training associated with preferential use of only one sensory or motoric organ may result in a time advantage for the dominant side. Although brain efficiency of individuals can be achieved without the need for alignment of lateralization in the population, lateral biases (such as preferences in the use of a laterally-placed eye) usually occur at the population level, with most individuals showing a similar direction of bias. Why is this the case? Not only humans, but also most non-human animals, show a similar pattern of population bias (i.e., directional asymmetry). For instance, in several vertebrate species (from fish to mammals) most individuals react faster when a predator approaches from their left side, although some individuals (a minority usually ranging from 10 to 35%) escape faster from predators arriving from their right side. Invoking individual efficiency (lateralization may increase fitness), evolutionary chance or simply genetic inheritance cannot explain this widespread pattern. Using mathematical theory of games, it has been argued that the population structure of lateralization (with either antisymmetry or directional asymmetry) may result from the type of interactions asymmetric organisms face with each other.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lesley J Rogers
- School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
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22
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Shen J, Fang K, Fan Y, Song J, Yang J, Shen D, Liu Y, Fang G. Dynamics of electroencephalogram oscillations underlie right-eye preferences in predatory behavior of the music frog. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.212175. [PMID: 31611293 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.212175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Visual lateralization is a typical characteristic of many vertebrates; however, its underlying dynamic neural mechanism is unclear. In this study, predatory responses and dynamic brain activities were evaluated in the Emei music frog (Nidirana daunchina) to assess the potential eye preferences and their underlying dynamic neural mechanism, using behavioral and electrophysiological experiments, respectively. To do this, when the prey stimulus (live cricket and leaf as control) was moved around the frogs in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions at constant velocity, the number of predatory responses were counted and electroencephalogram (EEG) absolute power spectra for each band were measured for the telencephalon, diencephalon and mesencephalon. The results showed that: (1) no significant differences in the number of predatory responses could be found for the control (leaf), but the number of predatory responses for the right visual field (RVF) was significantly greater than that for the left visual field (LVF) when the live cricket was moved into the RVF clockwise; (2) compared with no stimulus in the visual field and stimulus in the LVF, the power spectra of each EEG band were greater when the prey stimulus was moved into the RVF clockwise; and (3) the power spectra of the theta, alpha and beta bands in the left diencephalon were significantly greater than those of the right counterpart for the clockwise direction, but similar significant differences presented for the delta, theta and alpha bands in the anticlockwise direction. Together, the results suggested that right-eye preferences for predatory behaviors exist in music frogs, and that the dynamics of EEG oscillations might underlie this right eye/left hemisphere advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangyan Shen
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ke Fang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanzhu Fan
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinjin Song
- School of Life Science, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Yang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Di Shen
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yansu Liu
- Sichuan Nursing Vocational College, No. 173, Longdu Nan Road, Longquan District, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangzhan Fang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 9 Section 4, Renmin Nan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
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23
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Schnell AK, Bellanger C, Vallortigara G, Jozet-Alves C. Visual asymmetries in cuttlefish during brightness matching for camouflage. Curr Biol 2019; 28:R925-R926. [PMID: 30205059 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Many animals use camouflage to avoid detection by predators. Camouflage can take several forms, one of which includes brightness matching, a form of crypsis, which occurs when an individual resembles the brightness of their surrounding habitat. Most animals have evolved skin patterning that is fixed and specific to their environment, typically limiting their camouflage abilities to a particular habitat [1]. By contrast, crypsis in cuttlefish is dynamic because they can change their body patterns rapidly (270-730 milliseconds) in response to the visual environment through neural control of pigmented organs known as chromatophores [2,3]. Cuttlefish respond to conflicting visual cues, that is, to different visual information on their left and right sides, with mixed body patterns [4]. This response may be modulated by perceptual asymmetries in visual processing, since cuttlefish exhibit biases when processing visual information, termed visual lateralization [5]. Visual lateralization occurs when information in one visual field is prioritized over the other visual field during a specific behavior, but this phenomenon and its potential effect on camouflage behavior have never before been investigated. We report here that juvenile cuttlefish have a right eye preference for brightness matching, as the substrate perceived in their right visual field was prioritized.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cécile Bellanger
- Normandie Univ., UNICAEN, Univ Rennes, CNRS, UMR EthoS 6552, Caen, France
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Centre for Mind/Brain Science, University of Trento, Piazza della Manifattura, Rovereto, Italy
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24
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Bartolomeo P, Seidel Malkinson T. Hemispheric lateralization of attention processes in the human brain. Curr Opin Psychol 2019; 29:90-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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25
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Abstract
Behavioral asymmetries exhibited by the common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, a cephalopod mollusk, during predatory and exploratory responses were investigated. Animals were tested for eye preferences while attacking a natural (live crab) or an artificial (plastic ball) stimulus, and for side preferences while exploring a T-maze in the absence of any specific intra- or extra-maze cues. We found individual-level asymmetry in some animals when faced with either natural or artificial stimuli, but not when exploring the maze. Our findings suggest that visual lateralization in O. vulgaris is context-dependent.
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26
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O'Brien CE, Jozet-Alves C, Mezrai N, Bellanger C, Darmaillacq AS, Dickel L. Maternal and Embryonic Stress Influence Offspring Behavior in the Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. Front Physiol 2017; 8:981. [PMID: 29249984 PMCID: PMC5717421 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress experienced during prenatal development-either applied to reproducing females (maternal stress), directly to developing offspring (embryonic stress) or in combination-is associated with a range of post-natal behavioral effects in numerous organisms. We conducted an experiment to discern if maternal and embryonic stressors affect the behavior of hatchlings of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis, a species with features that allow for the examination of these stress types in isolation. Separating the impact of stress transmitted through the mother vs. stress experienced by the embryo itself will help clarify the behavioral findings in viviparous species for which it is impossible to disentangle these effects. We also compared the effect of a naturally-occurring (predator cue) and an "artificial" (bright, randomly-occurring LED light) embryonic stressor. This allowed us to test the hypothesis that a threat commonly faced by a species (natural threat) would be met with a genetically-programmed and adaptive response while a novel one would confound innate defense mechanisms and lead to maladaptive effects. We found that the maternal stressor was associated with significant differences in body patterning and activity patterns. By contrast, embryonic exposure to stressors increased the proportion of individuals that pursued prey. From these results, it appears that in cuttlefish, maternal and embryonic stressors affect different post-natal behavior in offspring. In addition, the effect of the artificial stressor suggests that organisms can sometimes react adaptively to a stressor even if it is not one that has been encountered during the evolutionary history of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin E O'Brien
- Normandie Univ., UNICAEN, Rennes 1 Univ., UR1, CNRS, UMR 6552 ETHOS, Caen, France
| | | | - Nawel Mezrai
- Normandie Univ., UNICAEN, Rennes 1 Univ., UR1, CNRS, UMR 6552 ETHOS, Caen, France
| | - Cécile Bellanger
- Normandie Univ., UNICAEN, Rennes 1 Univ., UR1, CNRS, UMR 6552 ETHOS, Caen, France
| | | | - Ludovic Dickel
- Normandie Univ., UNICAEN, Rennes 1 Univ., UR1, CNRS, UMR 6552 ETHOS, Caen, France
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27
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Ong M, Bulmer M, Groening J, Srinivasan MV. Obstacle traversal and route choice in flying honeybees: Evidence for individual handedness. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184343. [PMID: 29095830 PMCID: PMC5667806 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Flying insects constantly face the challenge of choosing efficient, safe and collision-free routes while navigating through dense foliage. We examined the route-choice behavior of foraging honeybees when they encountered a barrier which could be traversed by flying through one of two apertures, positioned side by side. When the bees' choice behavior was averaged over the entire tested population, the two apertures were chosen with equal frequency when they were equally wide. When the apertures were of different width, the bees, on average, showed a preference for the wider aperture, which increased sharply with the difference between the aperture widths. Thus, bees are able to discriminate the widths of oncoming gaps and choose the passage which is presumably safer and quicker to transit. Examination of the behavior of individual bees revealed that, when the two apertures were equally wide, ca. 55% of the bees displayed no side bias in their choices. However, the remaining 45% showed varying degrees of bias, with one half of them preferring the left-hand aperture, and the other half the right-hand aperture. The existence of distinct individual biases was confirmed by measuring the times required by biased bees to transit various aperture configurations: The transit time was longer if a bee's intrinsic bias forced it to engage with the narrower aperture. Our results show that, at the population level, bees do not exhibit 'handedness' in choosing routes; however, individual bees display an idiosyncratic bias that can range from a strong left bias, through zero bias, to a strong right bias. In honeybees, previous studies of olfactory and visual learning have demonstrated clear biases at the population level. To our knowledge, our study is the first to uncover the existence of individually distinct biases in honeybees. We also show how a distribution of biases among individual honeybees can be advantageous in facilitating rapid transit of a group of bees through a cluttered environment, without any centralized decision-making or control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marielle Ong
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael Bulmer
- School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Julia Groening
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mandyam V. Srinivasan
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- * E-mail:
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28
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Yoo HN, Lee JW, Yoo JC. Asymmetry of eye color in the common cuckoo. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7612. [PMID: 28790375 PMCID: PMC5548743 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08071-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Bilateral symmetry is assumed to contribute to the evolution of eye color, with the left and right eye being the same color in most vertebrates; yet, few studies tested this assumption. Here, we compared the amount of iris flecking (black spots presented on the iris) between the left and right eye of 76 adult common cuckoos Cuculus canorus. We found considerable variation in the total amount of iris flecking among individuals, with variation being associated with body size and sex. We also found that the amount of iris flecking differed between the left and right eye and that this left-right asymmetry was not random, with the left eye almost always being darker than the right eye. Furthermore, this asymmetry was negatively associated with wing length; however, this effect was limited to individuals with dark eyes. Overall, the asymmetric, but non-random, distribution of iris flecking between the left and right eye may indicate that selection pressures driving asymmetry (such as visual lateralization) act on the development of iris colors, even though this effect might be limited, due to the role of bilateral symmetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ha-Na Yoo
- Korea Institute of Ornithology & Department of Biology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Won Lee
- Korea Institute of Ornithology & Department of Biology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jeong-Chil Yoo
- Korea Institute of Ornithology & Department of Biology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
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