1
|
Novel object recognition in Octopus maya. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:1065-1072. [PMID: 36809584 PMCID: PMC10066149 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01753-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
The Novel Object Recognition task (NOR) is widely used to study vertebrates' memory. It has been proposed as an adequate model for studying memory in different taxonomic groups, allowing similar and comparable results. Although in cephalopods, several research reports could indicate that they recognize objects in their environment, it has not been tested as an experimental paradigm that allows studying different memory phases. This study shows that two-month-old and older Octopus maya subjects can differentiate between a new object and a known one, but one-month-old subjects cannot. Furthermore, we observed that octopuses use vision and tactile exploration of new objects to achieve object recognition, while familiar objects only need to be explored visually. To our knowledge, this is the first time showing an invertebrate performing the NOR task similarly to how it is performed in vertebrates. These results establish a guide to studying object recognition memory in octopuses and the ontological development of that memory.
Collapse
|
2
|
Learning predictably changing spatial patterns across days in a food-caching bird. Anim Behav 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
3
|
Niesterok B, Martin S, Hildebrand L, Dehnhardt G, Hanke FD. Well-developed spatial reversal learning abilities in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). Anim Cogn 2022; 25:1195-1206. [PMID: 35841437 PMCID: PMC9617834 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01651-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, behavioral plasticity in harbor seals was investigated in spatial reversal learning tasks of varying complexities. We started with a classic spatial reversal learning experiment with no more than one reversal per day. The seals quickly learned the task and showed progressive improvement over reversals, one seal even reaching one-trial performance. In a second approach, one seal could complete multiple reversals occurring within a session. Again, a number of reversals were finished with only one error occurring at the beginning of a session as in experiment 1 which provides evidence that the seal adopted a strategy. In a final approach, reversals within a session were marked by an external cue. This way, an errorless performance of the experimental animal was achieved in up to three consecutive reversals. In conclusion, harbor seals master spatial, in contrast to visual, reversal learning experiments with ease. The underlying behavioral flexibility can help to optimize behaviors in fluctuating or changing environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Niesterok
- Institute for Biosciences, Sensory and Cognitive Ecology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany
- Institute for Bioscience, Neuroethology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Shanie Martin
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Biological and Marine Science, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Lisa Hildebrand
- Geospatial Ecology of Marine Megafauna Lab, Marine Mammal Institute, and Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Newport, OR, 97365, USA
| | - Guido Dehnhardt
- Institute for Biosciences, Sensory and Cognitive Ecology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Frederike D Hanke
- Institute for Bioscience, Neuroethology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Erdsack N, Dehnhardt G, Hanke FD. Serial visual reversal learning in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). Anim Cogn 2022; 25:1183-1193. [PMID: 35864326 PMCID: PMC9617845 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01653-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Progressively improving performance in a serial reversal learning (SRL) test has been associated with higher cognitive abilities and has served as a measure for cognitive/behavioral flexibility. Although the cognitive and sensory abilities of marine mammals have been subject of extensive investigation, and numerous vertebrate and invertebrate species were tested, SRL studies in aquatic mammals are sparse. Particularly in pinnipeds, a high degree of behavioral flexibility seems probable as they face a highly variable environment in air and underwater. Thus, we tested four harbor seals in a visual two-alternative forced-choice discrimination task and its subsequent reversals. We found significant individual differences in performance. One individual was able to solve 37 reversals showing progressive improvement of performance with a minimum of 6 errors in reversal 33. Two seals mastered two reversals, while one animal had difficulties in learning the discrimination task and failed to complete a single reversal. In conclusion, harbor seals can master an SRL experiment; however, the performance is inferior to results obtained in other vertebrates in comparable tasks. Future experiments will need to assess whether factors such as the modality addressed in the experiment have an influence on reversal learning performance or whether indeed, during evolution, behavioral flexibility has not specifically been favored in harbor seals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Erdsack
- Institute for Biosciences, Sensory and Cognitive Ecology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany
- Manatee Research Program, Mote Marine Laboratory & Aquarium, 1600 Ken Thompson Pkwy, Sarasota, FL, 34236, USA
| | - Guido Dehnhardt
- Institute for Biosciences, Sensory and Cognitive Ecology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Frederike D Hanke
- Institute for Biosciences, Neuroethology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3, 18059, Rostock, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vergara-Ovalle F, Gonzalez-Navarrete A, Sánchez-Castillo H. Characterization of the Brain of the Red Mayan Octopus (Octopus maya Voss and Solis, 1966). J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093022050118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
6
|
Ponte G, Chiandetti C, Edelman DB, Imperadore P, Pieroni EM, Fiorito G. Cephalopod Behavior: From Neural Plasticity to Consciousness. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 15:787139. [PMID: 35495582 PMCID: PMC9039538 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.787139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is only in recent decades that subjective experience - or consciousness - has become a legitimate object of scientific inquiry. As such, it represents perhaps the greatest challenge facing neuroscience today. Subsumed within this challenge is the study of subjective experience in non-human animals: a particularly difficult endeavor that becomes even more so, as one crosses the great evolutionary divide between vertebrate and invertebrate phyla. Here, we explore the possibility of consciousness in one group of invertebrates: cephalopod molluscs. We believe such a review is timely, particularly considering cephalopods' impressive learning and memory abilities, rich behavioral repertoire, and the relative complexity of their nervous systems and sensory capabilities. Indeed, in some cephalopods, these abilities are so sophisticated that they are comparable to those of some higher vertebrates. Following the criteria and framework outlined for the identification of hallmarks of consciousness in non-mammalian species, here we propose that cephalopods - particularly the octopus - provide a unique test case among invertebrates for examining the properties and conditions that, at the very least, afford a basal faculty of consciousness. These include, among others: (i) discriminatory and anticipatory behaviors indicating a strong link between perception and memory recall; (ii) the presence of neural substrates representing functional analogs of thalamus and cortex; (iii) the neurophysiological dynamics resembling the functional signatures of conscious states in mammals. We highlight the current lack of evidence as well as potentially informative areas that warrant further investigation to support the view expressed here. Finally, we identify future research directions for the study of consciousness in these tantalizing animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Ponte
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | | | - David B. Edelman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
- Association for Cephalopod Research ‘CephRes' a non-profit Organization, Naples, Italy
| | - Pamela Imperadore
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Graziano Fiorito
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
There is no agreement on whether any invertebrates are conscious and no agreement on a methodology that could settle the issue. How can the debate move forward? I distinguish three broad types of approach: theory-heavy, theory-neutral and theory-light. Theory-heavy and theory-neutral approaches face serious problems, motivating a middle path: the theory-light approach. At the core of the theory-light approach is a minimal commitment about the relation between phenomenal consciousness and cognition that is compatible with many specific theories of consciousness: the hypothesis that phenomenally conscious perception of a stimulus facilitates, relative to unconscious perception, a cluster of cognitive abilities in relation to that stimulus. This "facilitation hypothesis" can productively guide inquiry into invertebrate consciousness. What is needed? At this stage, not more theory, and not more undirected data gathering. What is needed is a systematic search for consciousness-linked cognitive abilities, their relationships to each other, and their sensitivity to masking.
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
It is always difficult to even advance possible dimensions of consciousness, but Birch et al., 2020 have suggested four possible dimensions and this review discusses the first, perceptual richness, with relation to octopuses. They advance acuity, bandwidth, and categorization power as possible components. It is first necessary to realize that sensory richness does not automatically lead to perceptual richness and this capacity may not be accessed by consciousness. Octopuses do not discriminate light wavelength frequency (color) but rather its plane of polarization, a dimension that we do not understand. Their eyes are laterally placed on the head, leading to monocular vision and head movements that give a sequential rather than simultaneous view of items, possibly consciously planned. Details of control of the rich sensorimotor system of the arms, with 3/5 of the neurons of the nervous system, may normally not be accessed to the brain and thus to consciousness. The chromatophore-based skin appearance system is likely open loop, and not available to the octopus’ vision. Conversely, in a laboratory situation that is not ecologically valid for the octopus, learning about shapes and extents of visual figures was extensive and flexible, likely consciously planned. Similarly, octopuses’ local place in and navigation around space can be guided by light polarization plane and visual landmark location and is learned and monitored. The complex array of chemical cues delivered by water and on surfaces does not fit neatly into the components above and has barely been tested but might easily be described as perceptually rich. The octopus’ curiosity and drive to investigate and gain more information may mean that, apart from richness of any stimulus situation, they are consciously driven to seek out more information. This review suggests that cephalopods may not have a similar type of intelligence as the ‘higher’ vertebrates, they may not have similar dimensions or contents of consciousness, but that such a capacity is present nevertheless.
Collapse
|
9
|
Bublitz A, Dehnhardt G, Hanke FD. Reversal of a Spatial Discrimination Task in the Common Octopus (Octopus vulgaris). Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:614523. [PMID: 34248514 PMCID: PMC8267067 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.614523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Reversal learning requires an animal to learn to discriminate between two stimuli but reverse its responses to these stimuli every time it has reached a learning criterion. Thus, different from pure discrimination experiments, reversal learning experiments require the animal to respond to stimuli flexibly, and the reversal learning performance can be taken as an illustration of the animal's cognitive abilities. We herein describe a reversal learning experiment involving a simple spatial discrimination task, choosing the right or left side, with octopus. When trained with positive reinforcement alone, most octopuses did not even learn the original task. The learning behavior changed drastically when incorrect choices were indicated by a visual signal: the octopuses learned the task within a few sessions and completed several reversals thereby decreasing the number of errors needed to complete a reversal successively. A group of octopus trained with the incorrect-choice signal directly acquired the task quickly and reduced their performances over reversals. Our results indicate that octopuses are able to perform successfully in a reversal experiment based on a spatial discrimination showing progressive improvement, however, without reaching the ultimate performance. Thus, depending on the experimental context, octopus can show behavioral flexibility in a reversal learning task, which goes beyond mere discrimination learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Bublitz
- Sensory and Cognitive Ecology, Institute for Biosciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Guido Dehnhardt
- Sensory and Cognitive Ecology, Institute for Biosciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Frederike D Hanke
- Neuroethology, Institute for Biosciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hermer E, Murphy B, Chaine AS, Morand-Ferron J. Great tits who remember more accurately have difficulty forgetting, but variation is not driven by environmental harshness. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10083. [PMID: 33980907 PMCID: PMC8114932 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89125-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The causes of individual variation in memory are poorly understood in wild animals. Harsh environments with sparse or rapidly changing food resources are hypothesized to favour more accurate spatial memory to allow animals to return to previously visited patches when current patches are depleted. A potential cost of more accurate spatial memory is proactive interference, where accurate memories block the formation of new memories. This relationship between spatial memory, proactive interference, and harsh environments has only been studied in scatter-hoarding animals. We compare spatial memory accuracy and proactive interference performance of non-scatter hoarding great tits (Parus major) from high and low elevations where harshness increases with elevation. In contrast to studies of scatter-hoarders, we did not find a significant difference between high and low elevation birds in their spatial memory accuracy or proactive interference performance. Using a variance partitioning approach, we report the first among-individual trade-off between spatial memory and proactive interference, uncovering variation in memory at the individual level where selection may act. Although we have no evidence of harsh habitats affecting spatial memory, our results suggest that if elevation produced differences in spatial memory between elevations, we could see concurrent changes in how quickly birds can forget.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Hermer
- grid.28046.380000 0001 2182 2255University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON Canada
| | - Ben Murphy
- grid.7836.a0000 0004 1937 1151University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Alexis S. Chaine
- Station d’Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS, Moulis, France ,grid.424401.70000 0004 0384 0611Institute for Advanced Studies in Toulouse, Toulouse School of Economics, Toulouse, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Sex-specific cognitive flexibility in Atlantic mollies when learning from male demonstrators exploring a new food source. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
12
|
Winsor AM, Pagoti GF, Daye DJ, Cheries EW, Cave KR, Jakob EM. What gaze direction can tell us about cognitive processes in invertebrates. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 564:43-54. [PMID: 33413978 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Most visually guided animals shift their gaze using body movements, eye movements, or both to gather information selectively from their environments. Psychological studies of eye movements have advanced our understanding of perceptual and cognitive processes that mediate visual attention in humans and other vertebrates. However, much less is known about how these processes operate in other organisms, particularly invertebrates. We here make the case that studies of invertebrate cognition can benefit by adding precise measures of gaze direction. To accomplish this, we briefly review the human visual attention literature and outline four research themes and several experimental paradigms that could be extended to invertebrates. We briefly review selected studies where the measurement of gaze direction in invertebrates has provided new insights, and we suggest future areas of exploration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Winsor
- Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
| | - Guilherme F Pagoti
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, 321, Travessa 14, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP, 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Daniel J Daye
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA; Graduate Program in Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Erik W Cheries
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Kyle R Cave
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Jakob
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Birch J, Schnell AK, Clayton NS. Dimensions of Animal Consciousness. Trends Cogn Sci 2020; 24:789-801. [PMID: 32830051 PMCID: PMC7116194 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
How does consciousness vary across the animal kingdom? Are some animals 'more conscious' than others? This article presents a multidimensional framework for understanding interspecies variation in states of consciousness. The framework distinguishes five key dimensions of variation: perceptual richness, evaluative richness, integration at a time, integration across time, and self-consciousness. For each dimension, existing experiments that bear on it are reviewed and future experiments are suggested. By assessing a given species against each dimension, we can construct a consciousness profile for that species. On this framework, there is no single scale along which species can be ranked as more or less conscious. Rather, each species has its own distinctive consciousness profile.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Birch
- Centre for Philosophy of Natural and Social Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street, London, WC2A 2AE, UK.
| | - Alexandra K Schnell
- Comparative Cognition Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Nicola S Clayton
- Comparative Cognition Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Schnell AK, Amodio P, Boeckle M, Clayton NS. How intelligent is a cephalopod? Lessons from comparative cognition. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 96:162-178. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Piero Amodio
- Department of Psychology University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn Naples Italy
| | - Markus Boeckle
- Department of Psychology University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
- Department of Cognitive Biology University of Vienna Vienna Austria
- Karl Landsteiner University of Health Science Krems an der Donau Austria
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Chung WS, Kurniawan ND, Marshall NJ. Toward an MRI-Based Mesoscale Connectome of the Squid Brain. iScience 2020; 23:100816. [PMID: 31972515 PMCID: PMC6974791 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.100816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Using high-resolution diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) and a suite of old and new staining techniques, the beginnings of a multi-scale connectome map of the squid brain is erected. The first of its kind for a cephalopod, this includes the confirmation of 281 known connections with the addition of 145 previously undescribed pathways. These and other features suggest a suite of functional attributes, including (1) retinotopic organization through the optic lobes and into other brain areas well beyond that previously recognized, (2) a level of complexity and sub-division in the basal lobe supporting ideas of convergence with the vertebrate basal ganglia, and (3) differential lobe-dependent growth rates that mirror complexity and transitions in ontogeny.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Sung Chung
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Nyoman D Kurniawan
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - N Justin Marshall
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Cooke GM, Anderson DB, Begout ML, Dennison N, Osorio D, Tonkins B, Kristiansen T, Fiorito G, Galligioni V, Ponte G, Andrews PL. Prospective severity classification of scientific procedures in cephalopods: Report of a COST FA1301 Working Group survey. Lab Anim 2019; 53:541-563. [PMID: 31474182 DOI: 10.1177/0023677219864626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cephalopods are the first invertebrate class regulated by the European Union (EU) under Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes, which requires prospective assessment of severity of procedures. To assist the scientific community in establishing severity classification for cephalopods, we undertook a web-based survey of the EU cephalopod research community as represented by the participants in the European COoperation on Science and Technology (COST) Action FA1301, CephsInAction'. The survey consisted of 50 scenarios covering a range of procedures involving several cephalopod species at different life stages. Respondents (59 people from 15 countries) either allocated a severity classification to each scenario or indicated that they were unable to decide (UTD). Analyses evaluated score distributions and clustering. Overall, the UTD scores were low (7.0 ± 0.6%) and did not affect the severity classification. Procedures involving paralarvae and killing methods (not specified in Annexe IV) had the highest UTD scores. Consensus on non-recovery procedures was reached consistently, although occasionally non-recovery appeared to be confused with killing methods. Scenarios describing procedures above the lower threshold for regulation, including those describing behavioural studies, were also identified and allocated throughout the full range of severity classifications. Severity classification for scenarios based on different species (e.g. cuttlefish vs. octopus) was consistent, comparable and dependent on potentially more harmful interventions. We found no marked or statistically significant differences in the overall scoring of scenarios between the demographic subgroups (age, sex, PhD and cephalopod experience). The COST Action FA1301 survey data provide a basis for a prospective severity classification for cephalopods to serve as guide for researchers, project assessors and regulators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gavan M Cooke
- Anglia Ruskin University, Faculty of Life Sciences, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Graziano Fiorito
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Italy.,Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| | - Viola Galligioni
- Comparative Medicine Unit, Trinity College, Ireland.,Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| | - Giovanna Ponte
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Italy.,Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| | - Paul Lr Andrews
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Italy.,Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Fuss T, Witte K. Sex differences in color discrimination and serial reversal learning in mollies and guppies. Curr Zool 2019; 65:323-332. [PMID: 31263491 PMCID: PMC6595423 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral flexibility provides an individual with the ability to adapt its behavior in response to environmental changes. Studies on mammals, birds, and teleosts indicate greater behavioral flexibility in females. Conversely, males appear to exhibit greater behavioral persistence. We, therefore, investigated sex differences in behavioral flexibility in 2 closely related molly species (Poecilia latipinna, P. mexicana) and their more distant relative, the guppy P. reticulata by comparing male and female individuals in a serial, visual reversal learning task. Fish were first trained in color discrimination, which was quickly learned by all females (guppies and mollies) and all molly males alike. Despite continued training over more than 72 sessions, male guppies did not learn the general test procedure and were, therefore, excluded from further testing. Once the reward contingency was reversed serially, molly males of both species performed considerably better by inhibiting their previous response and reached the learning criterion significantly faster than their respective conspecific females. Moreover, Atlantic molly males clearly outperformed all other individuals (males and females) and some of them even reached the level of 1-trial learning. Thus, the apparently universal pattern of higher female behavioral flexibility seems to be inverted in the 2 examined molly species, although the evolutionary account of this pattern remains highly speculative. These findings were complemented by the observed lower neophobia of female sailfin mollies compared with their male conspecifics. This sex difference was not observed in Atlantic mollies that were observed to be significantly less distressed in a novel situation than their consexuals. Hypothetically, sex differences in behavioral flexibility can possibly be explained in terms of the different roles that males and females play in mating competition, mate choice, and reproduction or, more generally, in complex social interactions. Each of these characteristics clearly differed between the closely related mollies and the more distantly related guppies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Fuss
- Research Group of Ecology and Behavioral Biology, Institute of Biology, Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Str. 2, Siegen, Germany
| | - Klaudia Witte
- Research Group of Ecology and Behavioral Biology, Institute of Biology, Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Str. 2, Siegen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|