Morning Bright Light Treatment for Sleep-Wake Disturbances in Primary Biliary Cholangitis: A Pilot Study

Implications of circadian disruption on intervertebral disc degeneration: The mediating role of sympathetic nervous system

The circadian clock orchestrates a broad spectrum of physiological processes, crucially modulating human biology across an approximate 24-hour cycle. The circadian disturbances precipitated by modern lifestyle contribute to the occurrence of low back pain (LBP), mainly ascribed to intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD). The intervertebral disc (IVD) exhibits rhythmic physiological behaviors, with fluctuations in osmotic pressure and hydration levels that synchronized with the diurnal cycle of activity and rest. Over recent decades, advanced molecular biology techniques have shed light on the association between circadian molecules and IVD homeostasis. The complex interplay between circadian rhythm disruption and IVDD is becoming increasingly evident, with the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) emerging as a potential mediator. Synchronized with circadian rhythm through suprachiasmatic nucleus, the SNS regulates diverse physiological functions and metabolic processes, profoundly influences the structural and functional integrity of the IVD. This review synthesizes the current understanding of circadian regulation and sympathetic innervation of the IVD, highlighting advancements in the comprehension of their interactions. We elucidate the impact of circadian system on the physiological functions of IVD through the SNS, advocating for the adoption of chronotherapy as a brand-new and effective strategy to ameliorate IVDD and alleviate LBP.

The Effect of Light on Wellbeing: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Due to the dominant presence of studies and reviews exploring the impact of light on physical and mental illness, studies specifically investigating the effect of light on wellbeing are often overshadowed. The aim of this review is to give an overview of specifically these studies conducted on light and wellbeing, and to summarize the reported effects. After a literature search in PubMed, PsycInfo, and Web of Science, 74 studies were found eligible to be included in this systematic review, i.e. they included surveys assessing wellbeing, happiness, life satisfaction, positive affect, or quality of life. Of these 74 studies, 30 were included in the meta-analysis and assessed for their risk of bias. The meta-analysis showed a pooled effect size of 0.46 (CI = 0.29-0.62), indicating that light has a small-to-moderate positive effect on wellbeing. After removing outliers and studies with a high risk of bias, the sensitivity analysis showed the pooled effect size to be robust (0.53, CI = 0.35-0.72). Although the sensitivity analysis indicated a robust effect, the results might still be biased due to the relatively small sample sizes, risk of bias in the designs (due to e.g. difficulties handling confounders and the reporting of the outcomes), and publication bias. We encourage future studies to replicate these positive results in larger samples, and to give extensive details about the light design and statistical outcomes, to increase the number of studies that can be included in these types of systematic reviews.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10902-024-00838-4.

Sleep disturbances in chronic liver disease

Sleep disturbances are common in chronic liver disease and significantly impact patient outcomes and quality of life. The severity and nature of sleep disturbances vary by liver disease etiology and severity. While there is ongoing research into the association between liver disease and sleep-wake dysfunction, the underlying pathophysiology varies and, in many cases, is poorly understood. Liver disease is associated with alterations in thermoregulation, inflammation, and physical activity, and is associated with disease-specific complications, such as HE, that may directly affect sleep. In this article, we review the relevant pathophysiologic processes, disease-specific sleep-wake disturbances, and clinical management of CLD-associated sleep-wake disturbances.

Associations between sleep disorders and clinical outcomes of patients with primary biliary cholangitis

PURPOSE

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic autoimmune liver disease characterized by a range of symptoms, including sleep disturbances. The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence of sleep disorders and the associations between sleep disorders and clinical outcomes in PBC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We enrolled 177 patients with PBC and 165 healthy controls (age- and sex-matched). Sleep quality was assessed by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Demographic and clinical data were collected from comprehensive clinical records to investigate whether sleep disorder was correlated with disease severity, therapeutic response and liver cirrhosis.

RESULTS

The prevalence of sleep disorders in patients with PBC (50.8 ​%) was significantly higher than healthy controls (18.2 ​%). Patients with sleep disorders presented with higher levels of laboratory parameters including globulin (GLO), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), total bilirubin (TBIL), direct bilirubin (DBIL) and immunoglobulin M (IgM), as well as higher ratio of poor therapeutic response and liver cirrhosis (p ​< ​0.05). There was a positive correlation between global PSQI score and AST, ALP, GGT, TBIL, DBIL and IgM in patients with PBC. Patients with poor therapeutic response and liver cirrhosis in PBC had a higher proportion of sleep disorders and more chaotic sleep patterns, whereas a stronger correlation between sleep quality and laboratory parameters was found in patients with liver cirrhosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Sleep disorders were prevalent and manifested as adverse effects in PBC. Assessment of sleep quality and intervention were essential to the overall clinical management of patients with PBC.

Chronobiology of Cancers in the Liver and Gut

Circadian rhythms dictate the timing of cellular and organismal physiology to maintain homeostasis. Within the liver and gut, circadian rhythms influence lipid and glucose homeostasis, xenobiotic metabolism, and nutrient absorption. Disruption of this orchestrated timing is known to negatively impact human health and contribute to disease progression, including carcinogenesis. Dysfunctional core clock timing has been identified in malignant growths and may be used as a molecular signature of disease progression. Likewise, the circadian clock and its downstream effectors also represent potential for novel therapeutic targets. Here, the role of circadian rhythms in the pathogenesis of cancers of the liver and gut will be reviewed, and chronotherapy and chronopharmacology will be explored as potential treatment options.

Spatiotemporal light exposure modeling for environmental circadian misalignment and solar jetlag

Background

Light exposure is the most powerful resetting signal for circadian rhythms. The objective of this study was to develop and validate a high-resolution geospatial light exposure model that measures environmental circadian misalignment (or solar jetlag) as the mismatch between the social clock and sun clock, which occurs from geographic variation in light exposure leading to delayed circadian phase from relatively less morning light exposure and greater evening light exposure with increasing westward position within a time zone.

Methods

The light exposure model (30 m2 spatial resolution) incorporated geospatial data across the United States on time zones, elevation (using Google Earth Engine), sunrise time, and sunset time to estimate solar jetlag scores (higher values indicate higher environmental circadian misalignment). The validation study compared the light exposure model in 2022, which was linked with geocoded residential addresses of n = 20 participants in Boston, MA (eastern time zone position) and Seattle, WA (western time zone position) using a geographic information system, with illuminance values captured from wearable LYS light sensors and with sun times from the Solar Calculator.

Results

Western versus eastern positions within a time zone were associated with higher solar jetlag scores from the light exposure model (P < 0.01) and relatively larger differences in sunset time measured using light sensors (social clock) and the Solar Calculator (sun clock) (P = 0.04).

Conclusion

We developed and validated a geospatial light exposure model, enabling high spatiotemporal resolution and comprehensive characterization of geographic variation in light exposure potentially impacting circadian phase in epidemiologic studies.

Association Between Bedroom Light Pollution With Subjectively and Objectively Measured Sleep Parameters Among Chinese Young Adults

PURPOSE

To investigate the cross-sectional associations between real-world multiperiod bedroom light at night and sleep parameters among 365 Chinese young adults.

METHODS

Bedroom light exposure was estimated at the individual level for two consecutive days using a portable illuminance meter. Subjective sleep parameters were measured with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and objective sleep parameters were assessed by wrist-worn ActiGraph accelerometers for seven consecutive days.

RESULTS

Compared with the low-exposure group (average light intensity < 3lx), the high-exposure group (average light intensity ≥ 3lx) was associated with decreased 1.15% in sleep efficiency (sleep efficiency, 95% CI: -1.78, -0.52; p < .001), increased 3.94 minutes in wake after sleep onset (wake after sleep onset, 95% CI: 1.55, 6.33; p = .001), increased 1.05 unit in movement index (95% CI: 0.20, 1.89; p = .015), and increased 2.16 unit in sleep fragmentation index ( 95% CI: 0.63, 3.68; p = .006). In comparison, each interquartile increase in 2h-average and 1h-average intensity of preawake light (PAL) (PAL-2h and PAL-1h) was associated with 7.04 minutes of increases in total sleep time (95% CI: 0.87, 13.22; p = .025) and 6.69 minutes of increases in total sleep time (95% CI: 0.51, 12.87; p = .034), respectively.

DISCUSSION

Altogether, our results support the role of bedroom light exposure in sleep and imply the importance of bedroom light exposure management as a potential strategy to reduce the public health burden of sleep problems. Keeping the bedroom environment dark at night and allowing moderate morning light exposure may be important measures for improving the sleep quality of young adults.

Shine light on sleep: Morning bright light improves nocturnal sleep and next morning alertness among college students

The relationship between daytime light, especially morning light and sleep, has not been well documented. People who work in an office spend most of their time indoors and thus have less access to high-level daylight. The current study employed a field intervention approach to investigate whether exposure to 1.5 h of bright electric light in the early morning for 1 workweek would benefit sleep among students who spent most of their time in an office at the university. Twelve students (24.92 ± 1.78 years) underwent a 2 workday baseline measurement and two inconsecutive 5 workday interventions (with 1 week washout) with morning bright light and regular office light (1000 lx, 6500 K vs. 300 lx, 4000 K, at eye level). The sleep outcomes were recorded with actigraphy and a sleep diary. In addition, self-ratings of daytime sleepiness, mood, mental fatigue, perceived effort, and next morning sleepiness were measured each workday. The results showed that exposure to morning bright light versus regular office light yielded a higher sleep efficiency (83.82% ± 1.60 vs. 80.35% ± 1.57, p = 0.02), a smaller fragmentation index (15.26% ± 1.31 vs. 17.18% ± 1.28, p = 0.05), and a shorter time in bed (7.12 ± 0.13 vs. 7.51 ± 0.12, p = 0.03). Meanwhile, an earlier sleep onset time, shorter sleep latency, and lower morning sleepiness were observed after a 5 workday morning bright light intervention compared with the baseline (ps <0.05), no such benefit was found for self-ratings (ps >0.05). These findings support existing evidence that morning bright light could function as an enhancer of sleep and alertness for office occupants.

Circadian rhythms and the liver

This narrative review briefly describes the mammalian circadian timing system, the specific features of the liver clock, also by comparison with other peripheral clocks, the role of the liver clock in the preparation of food intake, and its relationship with energy metabolism. It then goes on to provide a chronobiological perspective of the pathophysiology and management of several types of liver disease, with a particular focus on metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), decompensated cirrhosis and liver transplantation. Finally, it provides some insight into the potential contribution of circadian principles and circadian hygiene practices in preventing MAFLD, improving the prognosis of advanced liver disease and modulating liver transplantation outcomes.

Hyperammonaemia disrupts daily rhythms reversibly by elevating glutamate in the central circadian pacemaker

Patients with cirrhosis exhibit features of circadian disruption. Hyperammonaemia has been suggested to impair both homeostatic and circadian sleep regulation. Here, we tested if hyperammonaemia directly disrupts circadian rhythm generation in the central pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus. Wheel-running activity was recorded from mice fed with a hyperammonaemic or normal diet for ~35 days in a 12:12 light-dark (LD) cycle followed by ~15 days in constant darkness (DD). The expression of the clock protein PERIOD2 (PER2) was recorded from SCN explants before, during and after ammonia exposure, ±glutamate receptor antagonists. In LD, hyperammonaemic mice advanced their daily activity onset time by ~1 h (16.8 ± 0.3 vs. 18.1 ± 0.04 h, p = .009) and decreased their total activity, concentrating it during the first half of the night. In DD, hyperammonaemia reduced the amplitude of daily activity (551.5 ± 27.7 vs. 724.9 ± 59 counts, p = .007), with no changes in circadian period. Ammonia (≥0.01 mM) rapidly and significantly reduced PER2 amplitude, and slightly increased circadian period. The decrease in PER2 amplitude correlated with decreased synchrony among circadian cells in the SCN and increased extracellular glutamate, which was rescued by AMPA glutamate receptor antagonists. These data suggest that hyperammonaemia affects circadian regulation of rest-activity behaviour by increasing extracellular glutamate in the SCN.

Late mismatch negativity of lexical tone at age 8 predicts Chinese children’s reading ability at age 10

Background

Deficits in phonological processing are commonly reported in dyslexia but longitudinal evidence that poor speech perception compromises reading is scant. This 2-year longitudinal ERP study investigates changes in pre-attentive auditory processing that underlies categorical perception of mandarin lexical tones during the years children learn to read fluently. The main purpose of the present study was to explore the development of lexical tone categorical perception to see if it can predict children’s reading ability.

Methods

Both behavioral and electrophysiological measures were taken in this study. Auditory event-related potentials were collected with a passive listening oddball paradigm. Using a stimulus continuum spanning from one lexical tone category exemplar to another, we identified a between-category and a within-category tone deviant that were acoustically equidistant from a standard stimulus. The standard stimulus occurred on 80% of trials, and one of two deviants (between-category or within-category) equiprobably on the remaining trials. 8-year-old Mandarin speakers participated in both an initial ERP oddball paradigm and returned for a 2-year follow-up.

Results

The between-category MMN and within-category MMN significantly correlate with each other at age 8 (p = 0.001) but not at age 10. The between-category MMN at age 8 can predict children’s ability at age 10 (p = 0.03) but the within-category cannot.

Conclusion

The categorical perception of lexical tone is still developing from age 8 to age 10. The behavioral and electrophysiological results demonstrate that categorical perception of lexical tone at age 8 predicts children’s reading ability at age 10.

Understanding fatigue in primary biliary cholangitis: From pathophysiology to treatment perspectives

Fatigue is considered one of the most frequent and debilitating symptoms in primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), affecting over 50% of PBC patients. One in five patients with PBC suffer from severe fatigue, which significantly impairs quality of life. Fatigue is made up of a central and a peripheral component, whose pathophysiology is still greatly unresolved. Central fatigue is characterised by a lack of self-motivation and can manifest both in physical and mental activities (lack of intention). Peripheral fatigue includes neuromuscular dysfunction and muscle weakness (lack of ability). Peripheral fatigue could be explained by an excessive deviation from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism leading to excessive lactic acid accumulation and therefore accelerated decline in muscle function and prolonged recovery time. As opposed to itching, and with the exception of end-stage liver disease, fatigue is not related to disease progression. The objective of this review is to outline current understanding regarding the pathophysiology of fatigue, the role of comorbidities and contributing factors, the main tools for fatigue assessment, the failed therapeutic options, and future treatment perspectives for this disabling symptom. Since fatigue is an extremely common and debilitating symptom and there is still no licensed therapy for fatigue in PBC patients, further research is warranted to understand its causative mechanisms and to find an effective treatment.

Health-related quality of life questionnaires used in primary biliary cholangitis: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this systematic review was to assess the suitability of health-related quality of life (HRQOL) questionnaires in patients with primary biliary cholangitis.

METHODS

Relevant studies were compiled from a search of five electronic databases. The properties under investigation included the validity of the translated questionnaires, floor and ceiling effects, internal consistency and test-retest reliability.

RESULTS

Forty-four studies were included, from which fifteen HRQOL questionnaires were identified. The most frequently used instruments were the PBC-40 (n = 22), the SF-36 (n = 19), the PBC-27 (n = 4), the CLDQ (n = 3) and the NIDDK-QA (n = 2). The remaining instruments were used only once. Twenty-six studies used a translated HRQOL questionnaire, but only six reported or referenced validating the translated questionnaire.

CONCLUSIONS

PBC-specific HRQOL questionnaires generally have good psychometric properties. However, many studies have directly applied HRQOL tools without verifying their validity and reliability in PBC patients. There was no clear indication that one HRQOL tool was superior to another, although the PBC-40 is the most well-studied. Thus, more robust psychometric studies are needed to investigate the measurement properties of HRQOL questionnaires.

Sleep and liver disease: a bidirectional relationship

Sleep is a complex, highly regulated process essential for human health and wellbeing. Increasingly, sleep-wake disturbance has been implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic liver disease, particularly the development and progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and alcohol-related liver disease. Patients with cirrhosis also have a high burden of sleep abnormalities with substantial implications for their quality of life and physical health. This Review summarises the epidemiology and pathophysiology of sleep-wake disturbance in liver disease and discusses the multiple converging pathways leading to abnormal sleeping patterns in patients with cirrhosis. This includes contributions from altered melatonin metabolism, neuromuscular complications, and aberrant thermoregulation. In turn, a vicious cycle is established whereby disrupted sleep can further contribute to liver disease progression. We also begin to unravel the complex, interlinking relationship between sleep-wake disturbance and hepatic encephalopathy, discussing both overlapping and distinct mechanisms and clinical features. Finally, we summarise the current and future therapeutic approaches aiming to improve sleep quality in patients with cirrhosis.

The role of astrocytes in generating circadian rhythmicity in health and disease

Evidence is accumulating that the mammalian circadian clock system is considerably more complex than previously believed, also in terms of the cell types that actually contribute to generating the oscillation within the master clock, in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Here we review the evidence that has lead to the identification of a bona fide astrocytic circadian clock, and that of the potential contribution of such clock to the generation of circadian and seasonal rhythmicity in health and in neurodegenerative disorders. Finally, we speculate on the role of the astrocytic clock in determining some of the clinical features of hepatic encephalopathy, a reversible neuropsychiatric syndrome associated with advanced liver disease, which is characterized by transient, profound morphological and functional astrocytic abnormalities, in the absence of significant, structural neuronal changes.

Comprehensive Overview of Sleep Disorders in Patients with Chronic Liver Disease

The impact of sleep disorders (SDs) on patients with chronic liver diseases (CLD) is tremendous. SDs are frequently encountered among these patients and interfere with their quality of life. This review aims to present the data available so far about the prevalence, phenotypes, and proposed pathophysiological mechanisms of SDs in CLD. Moreover, we proposed to search the literature regarding the most reliable methods to assess SDs and the possible therapeutic options in patients with CLD. The main results of this review show that when it comes to prevalence, the percentages reported vary widely between studies performed among populations from the USA or Europe and those coming from Asian countries. Furthermore, it has been proven that SDs may also be present in the absence of neurocognitive disorders attributable to hepatic encephalopathy (HE), which contradicts traditional suppositions where SDs were considered part of the clinical scenario of HE. Currently, there are no specific recommendations or protocols to assess SDs in CLD patients and data about the therapeutic management are limited. Taking into consideration their impact, a protocol for diagnosing and managing SDs should be developed and included in the daily practice of hepatologists.

Sleep, Circadian Rhythmicity and Response to Chronotherapy in University Students: Tips from Chronobiology Practicals

Chronobiology is not routinely taught to biology or medical students in most European countries. Here we present the results of the chronobiology practicals of a group of students of the University of Padova, with a view to highlight some interesting features of this group, and to share a potentially interesting cross-faculty teaching experience. Thirty-eight students (17 males; 22.9 ± 1.6 yrs) completed a set of self-administered electronic sleep quality [Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)], chronotype and sleepiness [Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS)] questionnaires. They then went on to complete sleep diaries for two weeks. Sixteen also wore an actigraph, 8 wore wireless sensors for skin temperature, and 8 underwent a course of chronotherapy aimed at anticipating their sleep-wake timing. Analyses were performed as practicals, together with the students. Average PSQI score was 5.4 ± 1.9, with 15 (39%) students being poor sleepers. Average ESS score was 6.5 ± 3.3, with 3 (8%) students exhibiting excessive daytime sleepiness. Seven classified themselves as definitely/moderately morning, 25 as intermediates, 6 as moderately/definitely evening. Students went to bed/fell asleep significantly later on weekends, it took them less to fall asleep and they woke up/got up significantly later. Diary-reported sleep onset time coincided with the expected decrease in proximal skin temperature. Finally, during chronotherapy they took significantly less time to fall asleep. In conclusion, significant abnormalities in the sleep-wake patterns of a small group of university students were observed, and the students seemed to benefit from chronotherapy. We had a positive impression of our teaching experience, and the chronobiology courses obtained excellent student feedback.

Sleep disorder in patients with chronic liver disease: a narrative review

Sleep disturbance is a common feature of chronic liver disease (CLD) with impact on health-related quality of life; 60-80% of patients with CLD report subjective poor sleep; frequent presentations of sleep disturbance include insomnia, reduced sleep efficiency, increased sleep latency, reduced time in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, restless leg syndrome and excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS). Key contributors to sleep disturbance include hepatic encephalopathy (HE) and circadian rhythm imbalance due to altered melatonin metabolism. Specific conditions causing CLD, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), chronic viral hepatitis and primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) result in different types of sleep disturbance, and the treatment of these conditions can often also lead to sleep disturbance. There are currently limited management options for sleep disturbance in CLD. Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a common condition that causes chronic intermittent hypoxia due to airway collapse during sleep. This chronic intermittent hypoxia appears to contribute to the development of NAFLD. The presence of reactive oxygen species and the overexpression of hypoxia inducible factor 1-alpha secondary to hypoxia may be responsible for the second 'hit' of the 'two-hit' hypothesis of NAFLD. Treatment of the intermittent hypoxia with continuous positive airway pressure therapy has limited efficacy against liver dysfunction. There remain many outstanding areas of investigation in the management of sleep disturbance in CLD, and of liver dysfunction in OSA.

Melatonin and circadian rhythms in liver diseases: Functional roles and potential therapies

Circadian rhythms and clock gene expressions are regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus, and melatonin is produced in the pineal gland. Although the brain detects the light through retinas and regulates rhythms and melatonin secretion throughout the body, the liver has independent circadian rhythms and expressions as well as melatonin production. Previous studies indicate the association between circadian rhythms with various liver diseases, and disruption of rhythms or clock gene expression may promote liver steatosis, inflammation, or cancer development. It is well known that melatonin has strong antioxidant effects. Alcohol drinking or excess fatty acid accumulation produces reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in the liver leading to liver injuries. Melatonin administration protects these oxidative stress-induced liver damage and improves liver conditions. Recent studies have demonstrated that melatonin administration is not limited to antioxidant effects and it has various other effects contributing to the management of liver conditions. Accumulating evidence suggests that restoring circadian rhythms or expressions as well as melatonin supplementation may be promising therapeutic strategies for liver diseases. This review summarizes recent findings for the functional roles and therapeutic potentials of circadian rhythms and melatonin in liver diseases.

Effect of Morning Light Glasses and Night Short-Wavelength Filter Glasses on Sleep-Wake Rhythmicity in Medical Inpatients

Sleep and circadian rhythm disorders are common amongst medical inpatients. They are caused by a mixture of factors, including noise, loss of habitual daily routines, and abnormal exposure to light, which tends to be insufficient in the day and too high at night. The aim of the present study was to test the efficacy of morning light therapy plus night short-wavelength filter glasses on sleep quality/timing, and sleepiness/mood over the daytime hours, in a group of well-characterized medical inpatients. Thirty-three inpatients were enrolled and randomized (2:1) to either treatment (n = 22; 13 males, 48.3 ± 13.3 years) or standard of care (n = 11; 8 males, 56.9 ± 12.9 years). On admission, all underwent a baseline assessment of sleep quality/timing and diurnal preference. During hospitalization they underwent monitoring of sleep quality/timing (sleep diaries and actigraphy), plus hourly assessment of sleepiness/mood during the daytime hours on one, standard day of hospitalization. Patients in the treatment arm were administered bright light through glasses immediately after awakening, and wore short-wavelength filter glasses in the evening hours. Treated and untreated patients were comparable in terms of demographics, disease severity/comorbidity, diurnal preference and pre-admission sleep quality/timing. During hospitalization, sleep diaries documented a trend for a lower number of night awakenings in treated compared to untreated patients (1.6 ± 0.8 vs. 2.4 ± 1.3, p = 0.057). Actigraphy documented significantly earlier day mode in treated compared to untreated patients (06:39 ± 00:35 vs. 07:44 ± 00:40, p = 0.008). Sleepiness during a standard day of hospitalization, recorded between 09:30 and 21:30, showed physiological variation in treated compared to untreated patients, who exhibited a more blunted profile. The level of sleepiness reported by treated patients was lower over the 09:30-14:30 interval, i.e., soon after light administration (interaction effect: F = 2.661; p = 0.026). Mood levels were generally higher in treated patients, with statistically significant differences over the 09:30-14:30 time interval, i.e., soon after light administration (treatment: F = 5.692, p = 0.026). In conclusion, treatment with morning bright light and short-wavelength filter glasses in the evening, which was well tolerated, showed positive results in terms of sleepiness/mood over the morning hours and a trend for decreased night awakenings.

Preclinical insights into cholangiopathies: disease modeling and emerging therapeutic targets

INTRODUCTION

The common predominant clinical features of cholangiopathies such as primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), and biliary atresia (BA) are biliary damage/senescence and liver fibrosis. Curative therapies are lacking, and liver transplantation is the only option. An understanding of the mechanisms and pathogenesis is needed to develop novel therapies. Previous studies have developed various disease-based research models and have identified candidate therapeutic targets. Areas covered: This review summarizes recent studies performed in preclinical models of cholangiopathies and the current understanding of the pathophysiology representing potential targets for novel therapies. A literature search was conducted in PubMed using the combination of the searched term 'cholangiopathies' with one or two keywords including 'model', 'cholangiocyte', 'animal', or 'fibrosis'. Papers published within five years were obtained. Expert opinion: Access to appropriate research models is a key challenge in cholangiopathy research; establishing more appropriate models for PBC is an important goal. Several preclinical studies have demonstrated promising results and have led to novel therapeutic approaches, especially for PSC. Further studies on the pathophysiology of PBC and BA are necessary to identify candidate targets. Innovative therapeutic approaches such as stem cell transplantation have been introduced, and those therapies could be applied to PSC, PBC, and BA.