Aspirin Eugenol Ester Attenuates Paraquat-Induced Hepatotoxicity by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress

Aspirin eugenol ester affects ileal barrier function, inflammatory response and microbiota in broilers under lipopolysaccharide-induced immune stress conditions

Aims

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of aspirin eugenol ester (AEE) on ileal immune function in broilers under lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced immune stress.

Methods

Two hundred and forty one-day-old male Arbor Acres chicks were randomly divided into four groups (saline, LPS, saline + AEE and LPS + AEE) with six replicates of ten broilers each. The saline group and LPS group were fed the normal diet, while the other two groups received normal diet plus 0.1 g/kg AEE. Broilers in the LPS and LPS + AEE groups were injected intraperitoneally with 0.5 mg/kg B.W LPS in saline for seven consecutive days beginning at 14 days of age, while broilers in the saline and saline + AEE groups were injected with saline only.

Results

The results showed that AEE improved the ileal morphology and increased the ratio of villus height to crypt depth of immune-stressed broilers. LPS-induced immune stress significantly reduced the expression of the genes for the tight junction proteins occludin, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), claudin-1 and claudin-2, in the ileum, while AEE significantly up-regulated the expression of these genes. Compared with the saline group, the LPS-treated chickens showed significantly increased mRNA expression of the inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and microsomal Prostaglandin E Synthesase-1 (mPGES-1) in the ileum, while they were significantly decreased by AEE supplementation. In addition, analysis of the ileal bacterial composition showed that compared with saline and LPS + AEE groups, the proportion of Firmicutes and Lactobacillus in the LPS group was lower, while the proportion of Proteobacteria and Escherichia-Shigella was higher. Similarly, Line Discriminant Analysis Effect Size (LEfSe) analysis showed that compared with the LPS group, Brevibacillus was dominant in the saline group, while the LPS + AEE group was rich in Rhizobium, Lachnoclostridium, Ruminococcaceae, Faecalibacterium, Negativibacillus, Oscillospiraceae, and Flavonifractor.

Conclusion

These results indicate that dietary supplementation with 0.1 g/kg AEE could protect the intestinal health by improving the intestinal villus morphology, enhancing the expression of tight junction genes and alleviating inflammation to resist the immune stress caused by LPS stimulation in broilers, and the mechanism may involve COX-2-related signal transduction and improved intestinal microbiota composition.

Roles of oxidative stress/JNK/ERK signals in paraquat-triggered hepatic apoptosis

Paraquat (PQ), a toxic and nonselective bipyridyl herbicide, is one of the most extensively used pesticides in agricultural countries. In addition to pneumotoxicity, the liver is an important target organ for PQ poisoning in humans. However, the mechanism of PQ in hepatotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, we found that exposure of rat hepatic H4IIE cells to PQ (0.1-2 mM) induced significant cytotoxicity and apoptosis, which was accompanied by mitochondria-dependent apoptotic signals, including loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), cytosolic cytochrome c release, and changes in the Bcl-2/Bax mRNA ratio. Moreover, PQ (0.5 mM) exposure markedly induced JNK and ERK1/2 activation, but not p38-MAPK. Blockade of JNK and ERK1/2 signaling by pretreatment with the specific pharmacological inhibitors SP600125 and PD98059, respectively, effectively prevented PQ-induced cytotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptotic events. Additionally, PQ exposure stimulated significant oxidative stress-related signals, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and intracellular glutathione (GSH) depletion, which could be reversed by the antioxidant N-Acetylcysteine (NAC). Buffering the oxidative stress response with NAC also effectively abrogated PQ-induced hepatotoxicity, MMP loss, apoptosis, and phosphorylation of JNK and ERK1/2 protein, however, the JNK or ERK inhibitors did not suppress ROS generation in PQ-treated cells. Collectively, these results demonstrate that PQ exposure induces hepatic cell toxicity and death via an oxidative stress-dependent JNK/ERK activation-mediated downstream mitochondria-regulated apoptotic pathway.

Pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, toxicity, and recent advances in Eugenol's potential benefits against natural and chemical noxious agents: A mechanistic review

The active biological phytochemicals, crucial compounds employed in creating hundreds of medications, are derived from valuable and medicinally significant plants. These phytochemicals offer excellent protection from various illnesses, including inflammatory disorders and chronic conditions caused by oxidative stress. A phenolic monoterpenoid known as eugenol (EUG), it is typically found in the essential oils of many plant species from the Myristicaceae, Myrtaceae, Lamiaceae, and Lauraceae families. One of the main ingredients of clove oil (Syzygium aromaticum (L.), Myrtaceae), it has several applications in industry, including flavoring food, pharmaceutics, dentistry, agriculture, and cosmeceuticals. Due to its excellent potential for avoiding many chronic illnesses, it has lately attracted attention. EUG has been classified as a nonmutant, generally acknowledged as a safe (GRAS) chemical by the World Health Organization (WHO). According to the existing research, EUG possesses notable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, antibacterial, antispasmodic, and apoptosis-promoting properties, which have lately gained attention for its ability to control chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial malfunction and dramatically impact human wellness. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the scientific evidence from the most significant research studies that have been published regarding the protective role and detoxifying effects of EUG against a wide range of toxins, including biological and chemical toxins, as well as different drugs and pesticides that produce a variety of toxicities, throughout view of the possible advantages of EUG.

Protective Effect and Mechanism of Aspirin Eugenol Ester on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Intestinal Barrier Injury

Intestinal inflammation is a complex and recurrent inflammatory disease. Pharmacological and pharmacodynamic experiments showed that aspirin eugenol ester (AEE) has good anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic effects. However, the role of AEE in regulating intestinal inflammation has not been explored. This study aimed to investigate whether AEE could have a protective effect on LPS-induced intestinal inflammation and thus help to alleviate the damage to the intestinal barrier. This was assessed with an inflammation model in Caco-2 cells and in rats induced with LPS. The expression of inflammatory mediators, intestinal epithelial barrier-related proteins, and redox-related signals was analyzed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blotting, immunofluorescence staining, and RT-qPCR. Intestinal damage was assessed by histopathological examination. Changes in rat gut microbiota and their functions were detected by the gut microbial metagenome. AEE significantly reduced LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels (p < 0.05) and oxidative stress levels in Caco-2 cells and rats. Compared with the LPS group, AEE could increase the relative expression of Occludin, Claudin-1, and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and decrease the relative expression of kappa-B (NF-κB) and matrix metalloproteinase-9. AEE could significantly improve weight loss, diarrhea, reduced intestinal muscle thickness, and intestinal villi damage in rats. Metagenome results showed that AEE could regulate the homeostasis of the gut flora and alter the relative abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Flora enrichment analysis indicated that the regulation of gut flora with AEE may be related to the regulation of glucose metabolism and energy metabolism. AEE could have positive effects on intestinal inflammation-related diseases.

Quercetin alleviates cadmium-induced BRL-3A cell apoptosis by inhibiting oxidative stress and the PERK/IRE1α/ATF6 signaling pathway

Cadmium (Cd) is a highly toxic environmental pollutant. The liver is an important metabolic organ in the body and is susceptible to Cd toxicity attacks. Quercetin (Que) is a flavonoid compound with pharmacological activities of scavenging free radicals and antioxidant activity. Previous studies have shown that Que can alleviate Cd caused hepatocyte apoptosis in rats, but the specific mechanism remains unclear. To explore the specific mechanism, we established a model of Cd toxicity and Que rescue in BRL-3A cells and used 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA), an endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) inhibitor, as positive control. Set up a control group, Cd treatment group, Cd and Que co treatment group, Que treatment group, Cd and 4-PBA co treatment group, and 4-PBA treatment group. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) method was employed to measure cell viability. Fluorescence staining was applied to observe cell apoptosis. Flow cytometry was performed to detect reactive oxygen species levels. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot method was adopted to detect the mRNA and protein expression levels of ERS and apoptosis-related genes. The results showed that compared with the control group, the Cd treated group showed a significant decrease in cell viability (P < 0.01), an increase in intracellular ROS levels, and apoptosis. The mRNA and protein expression levels of ERS and apoptosis related factors such as GRP78, IRE1α, XBP1, ATF6, Caspase-12, Caspase-3 and Bax in the cells were significantly increased (P < 0.01), while the mRNA and protein expression levels of Bcl-2 were significantly reduced (P < 0.01). Compared with the Cd treatment group, the Cd and Que co treatment group and the Cd and 4-PBA co treatment group showed a significant increase in cell viability (P < 0.01), a decrease in intracellular ROS levels, a decrease in cell apoptosis, and a significant decrease in the expression levels of ERS and apoptosis related factors mRNA and protein (P < 0.01), as well as a significant increase in Bcl-2 mRNA and protein expression (P < 0.01). We confirmed that Que could alleviate the apoptosis caused by Cd in BRL-3A cells, and the effects of Que were similar to those of ERS inhibitor.

Multi-omics reveals aspirin eugenol ester alleviates neurological disease

BACKGROUND

Exosomes play an essential role in maintaining normal brain function due to their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Aspirin eugenol ester (AEE) is a new medicinal compound synthesized by the esterification of aspirin with eugenol using the prodrug principle. Aspirin has been reported to have neuroprotective effects and may be effective against neurodegenerative diseases.

PURPOSE

This study wanted to investigate how AEE affected neurological diseases in vivo and in vitro.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

A multi-omics approach was used to explore the effects of AEE on the nervous system. Gene and protein expression changes of BDNF and NEFM in SY5Y cells after AEE treatment were detected using RT-qPCR and Western Blot.

KEY RESULTS

The multi-omics results showed that AEE could regulate neuronal synapses, neuronal axons, neuronal migration, and neuropeptide signaling by affecting transport, inflammatory response, and regulating apoptosis. Exosomes secreted by AEE-treated Caco-2 cells could promote the growth of neurofilaments in SY5Y cells and increased the expression of BDNF and NEFM proteins in SY5Y cells. miRNAs in the exosomes of AEE-treated Caco-2 cells may play an important role in the activation of SY5Y neuronal cells.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, AEE could play positive effects on neurological-related diseases.

CtBP Neuroprotective Role in Toxin-Based Parkinson's Disease Models: From Expression Pattern to Dopaminergic Survival

C-terminal binding proteins (CtBP) are transcriptional co-repressors regulating gene expression. CtBP promote neuronal survival through repression of pro-apoptotic genes, and may represent relevant targets for neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Nevertheless, evidence of the role of CtBP1 and CtBP2 in neurodegeneration are scarce. Herein, we showed that CtBP1 and CtBP2 are expressed in neurons, dopaminergic neurons, astrocytes, and microglia in the substantia nigra (SN) and striatum of adult mice. Old mice showed a lower expression of CtBP1 in the SN and higher expression of CtPB2 in the SN and striatum compared with adult mice. In vivo models for PD (paraquat, MPTP, 6-OHDA) showed increased expression of CtBP1 in the SN and striatum while CtBP2 expression was increased in the striatum of paraquat-treated rats only. Moreover, an increased expression of both CtBP was found in a dopaminergic cell line (N27) exposed to 6-OHDA. In the 6-OHDA PD model, we found a dual effect using an unspecific ligand of CtBP, the 4-methylthio 2-oxobutyric acid (MTOB): higher concentrations (e.g. 2500 µM, 1000 µM) inhibited dopaminergic survival, while at 250 μM it counteracted cell death. In vitro, this latter protective role was absent after the siRNA silencing of CtBP1 or CtBP2. Altogether, this is the first report exploring the cellular and regional expression pattern of CtBP in the nigrostriatal pathway and the neuroprotective role in PD toxin-based models. CtBP could counteract dopaminergic cell death in the 6-OHDA PD model and, therefore, CtBP function and therapeutic potential in PD should be further explored.

Paraquat-induced neurogenesis abnormalities via Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission

Neurogenesis is a fundamental process in the development and plasticity of the nervous system, and its regulation is tightly linked to mitochondrial dynamics. Imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics can result in oxidative stress, which has been implicated in various neurological disorders. Paraquat (PQ), a commonly used agricultural chemical known to be neurotoxic, induces oxidative stress that can lead to mitochondrial fragmentation. In this study, we investigated the effects of PQ on neurogenesis in primary murine neural progenitor cells (mNPCs) isolated from neonatal C57BL/6 mice. We treated the mNPCs with 0-40 μM PQ for 24 h and observed that PQ inhibited their proliferation, migration, and differentiation into neurons in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, PQ induced excessive mitochondrial fragmentation and upregulated the expression of Drp-1, p-Drp1, and Fis-1, while downregulating the expression of Mfn2 and Opa1. To confirm our findings, we used Mdivi-1, an inhibitor of mitochondrial fission, which reversed the adverse effects of PQ on neurogenesis, particularly differentiation into neurons and migration of mNPCs. Additionally, we found that Mito-TEMPO, a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant, ameliorated excessive mitochondrial fragmentation caused by PQ. Our study suggests that PQ exposure impairs neurogenesis by inducing excessive mitochondrial fission and abnormal mitochondrial fragmentation via oxidative stress. These findings identify mitochondrial fission as a potential therapeutic target for PQ-induced neurotoxicity. Further research is needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of mitochondrial dynamics and neurogenesis in the context of oxidative stress-induced neurological disorders.

Tripterygium wilfordii Hook.f. ameliorates paraquat-induced lung injury by reducing oxidative stress and ferroptosis via Nrf2/HO-1 pathway

Paraquat (PQ) poisoning can induce acute lung injury and fibrosis and has an extremely high mortality rate. However, no effective treatments for PQ poisoning have been established. In this study, the potential efficacy of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook.f. (TwHF) in alleviating PQ-induced lung injury and fibrosis was investigated in a mouse model. Mice were randomly assigned to the control, PQ, PQ + TwHF1 (pretreatment before inducing poisoning), and PQ + TwHF2 (treatment after poisoning) groups. The mice in the PQ + TwHF1 group were pretreated with TwHF for 5 days before receiving one dose of PQ (120 mg/kg) and then received a daily oral gavage of the indicated dosages of TwHF until sacrifice. The mice in the PQ + TwHF2 group were treated with TwHF 2 h after PQ exposure until sacrifice. The pathological analysis and Fapi PET/CT showed that treatment with TwHF attenuated lung injury. And TwHF reduced pulmonary oxidative stress, as indicated by the reduction in, malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, as well as by the increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. Accordingly, the Perls DAB staining showed increased iron concentrations and western blotting revealed a decreased GPX4 expression after PQ exposure, as well as the mitigation of the overexpression of Nrf2 and HO-1 induced by PQ. In conclusion, our study demonstrated the potential of TwHF as a treatment for PQ-induced lung injury and fibrosis. The protective mechanism of this medicinal herb may involve the regulation of ferroptosis.

Shenxiong glucose injection inhibits oxidative stress and apoptosis to ameliorate isoproterenol-induced myocardial ischemia in rats and improve the function of HUVECs exposed to CoCl2

Background: Shenxiong Glucose Injection (SGI) is a traditional Chinese medicine formula composed of ligustrazine hydrochloride and Danshen (Radix et rhizoma Salviae miltiorrhizae; Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, Lamiaceae). Our previous studies and others have shown that SGI has excellent therapeutic effects on myocardial ischemia (MI). However, the potential mechanisms of action have yet to be elucidated. This study aimed to explore the molecular mechanism of SGI in MI treatment. Methods: Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with isoproterenol (ISO) to establish the MI model. Electrocardiograms, hemodynamic parameters, echocardiograms, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, and serum concentrations of cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT) were analyzed to explore the protective effect of SGI on MI. In addition, a model of oxidative damage and apoptosis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was established using CoCl₂. Cell viability, Ca²⁺ concentration, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), apoptosis, intracellular ROS, and cell cycle parameters were detected in the HUVEC model. The expression of apoptosis-related proteins (Bcl-2, Caspase-3, PARP, cytoplasmic and mitochondrial Cyt-c and Bax, and p-ERK1/2) was determined by western blotting, and the expression of cleaved caspase-3 was analyzed by immunofluorescence. Results: SGI significantly reduced ROS production and serum concentrations of cTnI and cTnT, reversed ST-segment elevation, and attenuated the deterioration of left ventricular function in ISO-induced MI rats. In vitro, SGI treatment significantly inhibited intracellular ROS overexpression, Ca²⁺ influx, MMP disruption, and G2/M arrest in the cell cycle. Additionally, SGI treatment markedly upregulated the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and downregulated the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins p-ERK1/2, mitochondrial Bax, cytoplasmic Cyt-c, cleaved caspase-3, and PARP. Conclusion: SGI could improve MI by inhibiting the oxidative stress and apoptosis signaling pathways. These findings provide evidence to explain the pharmacological action and underlying molecular mechanisms of SGI in the treatment of MI.

Aspirin eugenol ester alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in rats while stabilizing serum metabolites levels

Aspirin eugenol ester (AEE) was a novel drug compound with aspirin and eugenol esterified. AEE had various pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, anti-oxidative stress and so on. In this study, it was aimed to investigate the effect of AEE on the acute lung injury (ALI) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in rats. In vitro experiments evaluated the protective effect of AEE on the LPS-induced A549 cells. The tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were measured in the cell supernatant. The Wistar rats were randomly divided into five groups (n = 8): control group, model group (LPS group), LPS + AEE group (AEE, 54 mg·kg−1), LPS + AEE group (AEE, 108 mg·kg−1), LPS + AEE group (AEE, 216 mg·kg−1). The lung wet-to-dry weight (W/D) ratio and immune organ index were calculated. WBCs were counted in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and total protein concentration was measured. Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) staining of lung tissue was performed. Glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), C-reactive protein (CRP), myeloperoxidase (MPO), malondialdehyde (MDA), macrophage mobility inhibitory factor (MIF), TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β activity were measured. The metabolomic analysis of rat serum was performed by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. From the results, compared with LPS group, AEE improved histopathological changes, reduced MDA, CRP, MPO, MDA, and MIF production, decreased WBC count and total protein content in BALF, pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, immune organ index and lung wet-dry weight (W/D), increased antioxidant enzyme activity, in a dose-dependent manner. The results of serum metabolomic analysis showed that the LPS-induced ALI caused metabolic disorders and oxidative stress in rats, while AEE could ameliorate it to some extent. Therefore, AEE could alleviate LPS-induced ALI in rats by regulating abnormal inflammatory responses, slowing down oxidative stress, and modulating energy metabolism.

Investigation of the Uptake and Transport of Aspirin Eugenol Ester in the Caco-2 Cell Model

Background: Aspirin eugenol ester (AEE) is a novel medicinal compound synthesized by esterification of aspirin with eugenol using the prodrug principle. AEE has the pharmacological activities of being anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, anti-cardiovascular diseases, and anti-oxidative stress However, its oral bioavailability is poor, and its intestinal absorption and transport characteristics are still unknown.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the uptake and transport mechanisms of AEE in Caco-2 cells.

Methods: The effects of time, concentration, and temperature on the transport and uptake of AEE were studied.

Results: The results showed that a higher concentration of salicylic acid (SA) was detected in the supernatant of cell lysates and cell culture medium, while AEE was not detected. Therefore, the content change of AEE was expressed as the content change of its metabolite SA. In the uptake experiment, when the factors of time, concentration, and temperature were examined, the uptake of SA reached the maximum level within 30 min, and there was concentration dependence. In addition, low temperature (4°C) could significantly reduce the uptake of SA in Caco-2 cells. In the transport experiment, under the consideration of time, concentration, and temperature, the transepithelial transport of SA from AP-BL and BL-AP sides was time-dependent. The amount of SA transported in Caco-2 cells increased with the increase of concentration, but the transmembrane transport rate had no correlation with the concentration. This phenomenon may be due to the saturation phenomenon of high concentration. The efflux ratio (ER) was less than 1, which indicated that their intestinal transport mechanism was passive transport. Moreover, the temperature had a significant effect on the transport of AEE.

Conclusion: In summary, intestinal absorption of AEE through Caco-2 cell monolayers was related to passive transport. The uptake and transport of AEE were concentration-dependent, and temperature significantly affected their uptake and transport. The absorption and transport characteristics of AEE may contribute to the exploration of mechanisms of absorption and transport of chemosynthetic drugs in vitro.