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Jack PS, Austin JH, Sarah NK, Tony GJI, Shaun GB. A kinematically complex multi-articular motor skill for investigating implicit motor learning. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024:10.1007/s00426-024-01987-0. [PMID: 38940820 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-024-01987-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Here we present a task developed to probe implicit learning of a complex motor skill. This task addresses limitations related to task complexity noted in the literature for methods investigating implicit motor learning, namely the serial reaction time task and continuous tracking task. Specifically, the serial reaction time task is limited by the kinematic simplicity of the required movement and the continuous tracing task faces time-on-task confounds and limitations in the control of task difficulty. The task presented herein addresses these issues by employing a kinematically complex multi-articular movement that controls factors that contribute to task difficulty: stimulus animation velocity and trajectory complexity. Accordingly, our objective was to validate the use of this task in probing implicit motor learning, hypothesizing that participants would learn one of the repeating stimuli implicitly. Participants engaged in six blocks of training whereby they first observed and then reproduced a seemingly random complex trajectory. Repeated trajectories were embedded amongst random trajectories. In line with the hypothesis, error for the repeated trajectories was decreased in comparison to that observed for the random trajectories and 73% of participants were unable to identify one of the repeated trajectories, demonstrating the occurrence of implicit learning. While the task requires minor alteration to optimize learning, ultimately the findings underline the task's potential to investigate implicit learning of a complex motor skill.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Solomon Jack
- Laboratory for Brain Recovery and Function, School of Physiotherapy, Dalhousie University, Rm 407, 4th Floor Forrest Building, 5869 University Avenue, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - J Hurst Austin
- Laboratory for Brain Recovery and Function, School of Physiotherapy, Dalhousie University, Rm 407, 4th Floor Forrest Building, 5869 University Avenue, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
- PhD Health Program, Faculty of Health, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - N Kraeutner Sarah
- Neuroplasticity, Imagery, and Motor Behaviour Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Vancouver, Canada
| | - G J Ingram Tony
- Laboratory for Brain Recovery and Function, School of Physiotherapy, Dalhousie University, Rm 407, 4th Floor Forrest Building, 5869 University Avenue, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - G Boe Shaun
- Laboratory for Brain Recovery and Function, School of Physiotherapy, Dalhousie University, Rm 407, 4th Floor Forrest Building, 5869 University Avenue, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada.
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada.
- PhD Health Program, Faculty of Health, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada.
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada.
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Arikawa E, Kubota M, Haraguchi T, Takata M, Natsugoe S. Implicit Motor Learning Strategies Benefit Dual-Task Performance in Patients with Stroke. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 59:1673. [PMID: 37763792 PMCID: PMC10536444 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59091673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: In stroke rehabilitation, the use of either implicit or explicit learning as a motor learning approach during dual tasks is common, but it is unclear which strategy is more beneficial. This study aims to determine the benefits of implicit versus explicit motor learning approaches in patients with stroke. Materials and Methods: Seventeen patients with stroke and 21 control participants were included. Motor learning was evaluated using the Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) in the context of dual-task conditions. The SRTT was conducted on two separate days: one day for implicit learning conditions and the other day for explicit learning conditions. Under the explicit learning conditions, a task rule was given to the participants before they started the task, but not under the implicit learning conditions. Learning scores were calculated for both implicit and explicit learning, and these scores were then compared within groups for patients with stroke and controls. We calculated the difference in learning scores between implicit and explicit learning and conducted a correlation analysis with the Trail Making Test (TMT) Parts A and B. Results: Learning scores on the SRTT were not different between implicit and explicit learning in controls but were significantly greater in patients with stroke for implicit learning than for explicit learning. The difference in learning scores between implicit and explicit learning in patients with stroke was correlated with TMT-A and showed a correlation trend with TMT-B. Conclusions: Implicit learning approaches may be effective in the acquisition of motor skills with dual-task demands in post-stroke patients with deficits in attention and working memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eito Arikawa
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kagoshima University, 8-35-1, Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan;
- General Rehabilitation Center, Kajikionsen Hospital, 4714, Kida, Kajiki, Aira City, Kagoshima 899-5241, Japan
| | - Masatomo Kubota
- Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Health Science, Factory of Medicine, Kagoshima University, 8-35-1, Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
| | - Tomoko Haraguchi
- General Rehabilitation Center, Kajikionsen Hospital, 4714, Kida, Kajiki, Aira City, Kagoshima 899-5241, Japan
| | - Masachika Takata
- General Rehabilitation Center, Kajikionsen Hospital, 4714, Kida, Kajiki, Aira City, Kagoshima 899-5241, Japan
| | - Shoji Natsugoe
- General Rehabilitation Center, Kajikionsen Hospital, 4714, Kida, Kajiki, Aira City, Kagoshima 899-5241, Japan
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Attention and interpretation cognitive bias change: A systematic review and meta-analysis of bias modification paradigms. Behav Res Ther 2022; 157:104180. [PMID: 36037642 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2022.104180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis examines the effect of Cognitive Bias Modification for attention (CBM-A) and interpretation (CBM-I) on reducing the targeted biases and investigates moderators of each approach. PsycINFO, PsychArticles, and PubMED databases were searched for randomized-controlled studies published before March 2020 with pre- and post-CBM cognitive bias outcome measures, resulting in 91 CBM-A (n = 5914 individuals) and 70 CBM-I samples (n = 4802 individuals). Random-effects models and Hedge's g calculation showed significant medium overall effects of bias reduction with moderate to high heterogeneity (CBM-A g = 0.49 [0.36, 0.64], I2 = 85.19%; CBM-I g = 0.58 [0.48, 0.68], I2 = 70.92%). Effect sizes did not differ between approaches and remained significant after trim-and-fill adjustment for possible publication bias. Moderator variables were investigated with meta-regression and subgroup analyses. Participant age, symptom type, control condition and number of trials moderated CBM-A; student and clinical status moderated CBM-I effect size. Results support attention and interpretation modification in controlled laboratory and variable (online) training settings for non-clinical and clinical samples across various symptom types (anxiety, depression, substance use, eating disorders). Further empirical evidence is necessary to determine optimal sample and methodological combinations most strongly associated with adaptive behavioral outcomes.
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Johannsen L, Friedgen E, Stephan DN, Batista J, Schulze D, Laurentius T, Koch I, Bollheimer LC. Keeping in step with the young: Chronometric and kinematic data show intact procedural locomotor sequence learning in older adults. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266733. [PMID: 35503784 PMCID: PMC9064075 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequence learning in serial reaction time tasks (SRTT) is an established, lab-based experimental paradigm to study acquisition and transfer of skill based on the detection of predictable stimulus and motor response sequences. Sequence learning has been mainly studied in key presses using visual target stimuli and is demonstrated by better performance in predictable sequences than in random sequences. In this study, we investigated sequence learning in the context of more complex locomotor responses. To this end, we developed a novel goal-directed stepping SRTT with auditory target stimuli in order to subsequently assess the effect of aging on sequence learning in this task, expecting that age-related performance reductions in postural control might disturb the acquisition of the sequence. We used pressure-sensitive floor mats to characterise performance across ten blocks of trials. In Experiment 1, 22 young adults demonstrated successful acquisition of the sequence in terms of the time to step on the target mat and percent error and thus validated our new paradigm. In Experiment 2, in order to contrast performance improvements in the stepping SRTT between 27 young and 22 old adults, motion capture of the feet was combined with the floor mat system to delineate individual movement phases during stepping onto a target mat. The latencies of several postural events as well as other movement parameters of a step were assessed. We observed significant learning effects in the latency of step initiation, the time to step on the target mat, and motion parameters such as stepping amplitude and peak stepping velocity, as well as in percent error. The data showed general age-related slowing but no significant performance differences in procedural locomotor sequence learning between young and old adults. The older adults also had comparable conscious representations of the sequence of stimuli as the young adults. We conclude that sequence learning occurred in this locomotor learning task that is much more complex than typical finger-tapping sequence learning tasks, and that healthy older adults showed similar learning effects compared to young adults, suggesting intact locomotor sequence learning capabilities despite general slowing and normal age-related decline in sensorimotor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Johannsen
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Medical Clinic VI–Geriatrics, University Hospital RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Erik Friedgen
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Joao Batista
- Medical Clinic VI–Geriatrics, University Hospital RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Doreen Schulze
- Medical Clinic VI–Geriatrics, University Hospital RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thea Laurentius
- Medical Clinic VI–Geriatrics, University Hospital RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Iring Koch
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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Wiegand I, Westenberg E, Wolfe JM. Order, please! Explicit sequence learning in hybrid search in younger and older age. Mem Cognit 2021; 49:1220-1235. [PMID: 33876402 PMCID: PMC8313466 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-021-01157-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Sequence learning effects in simple perceptual and motor tasks are largely unaffected by normal aging. However, less is known about sequence learning in more complex cognitive tasks that involve attention and memory processes and how this changes with age. In this study, we examined whether incidental and intentional sequence learning would facilitate hybrid visual and memory search in younger and older adults. Observers performed a hybrid search task, in which they memorized four or 16 target objects and searched for any of those target objects in displays with four or 16 objects. The memorized targets appeared either in a repeating sequential order or in random order. In the first experiment, observers were not told about the sequence before the experiment. Only a subset of younger adults and none of the older adults incidentally learned the sequence. The "learners" acquired explicit knowledge about the sequence and searched faster in the sequence compared to random condition. In the second experiment, observers were told about the sequence before the search task. Both younger and older adults searched faster in sequence blocks than random blocks. Older adults, however, showed this sequence-learning effect only in blocks with smaller target sets. Our findings indicate that explicit sequence knowledge can facilitate hybrid search, as it allows observers to predict the next target and restrict their visual and memory search. In older age, the sequence-learning effect is constrained by load, presumably due to age-related decline in executive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Wiegand
- Donders Institute for Brain, Behavior and Cognition, Department of Neuropsychology and Rehabilitation Psychology, Radboud University, Postbus 9104, 6500, HE, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Visual Attention Lab, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Erica Westenberg
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jeremy M Wolfe
- Visual Attention Lab, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Zwart FS, Vissers CTWM, Kessels RPC, Maes JHR. Procedural learning across the lifespan: A systematic review with implications for atypical development. J Neuropsychol 2017; 13:149-182. [DOI: 10.1111/jnp.12139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fenny S. Zwart
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour; Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Constance Th. W. M. Vissers
- Behavioural Science Institute; Nijmegen The Netherlands
- Royal Dutch Kentalis; Sint-Michielsgestel The Netherlands
| | - Roy P. C. Kessels
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour; Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Psychology; Radboud University Medical Center; Nijmegen The Netherlands
- Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry; Venray The Netherlands
| | - Joseph H. R. Maes
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour; Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
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Caljouw SR, Veldkamp R, Lamoth CJC. Implicit and Explicit Learning of a Sequential Postural Weight-Shifting Task in Young and Older Adults. Front Psychol 2016; 7:733. [PMID: 27252670 PMCID: PMC4877372 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Sequence-specific postural motor learning in a target-directed weight-shifting task in 12 older and 12 young participants was assessed. In the implicit sequence learning condition participants performed a concurrent spatial cognitive task and in the two explicit conditions participants were required to discover the sequence order either with or without the concurrent cognitive task. Participants moved a cursor on the screen from the center location to one of the target locations projected in a semi-circle and back by shifting their center of pressure (CoP) on force plates. During the training the targets appeared in a simple fixed 5-target sequence. Plan-based control (i.e., direction of the CoP displacement in the first part of the target-directed movement) improved by anticipating the sequence order in the implicit condition but not in the explicit dual task condition. Only the young participants were able to use the explicit knowledge of the sequence structure to improve the directional error as indicated by a significant decrease in directional error over practice and an increase in directional error with sequence removal in the explicit single task condition. Time spent in the second part of the movement trajectory to stabilize the cursor on the target location improved over training in both the implicit and explicit sequence learning conditions, for both age groups. These results might indicate that an implicit motor learning method, which holds back explicit awareness of task relevant features, may be desirable for improving plan-based motor control in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone R Caljouw
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
| | - Renee Veldkamp
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
| | - Claudine J C Lamoth
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
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Levin Y, Tzelgov J. Contingency learning is not affected by conflict experience: Evidence from a task conflict-free, item-specific Stroop paradigm. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2016; 164:39-45. [PMID: 26720099 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A contingency learning account of the item-specific proportion congruent effect has been described as an associative stimulus-response learning process that has nothing to do with controlling the Stroop conflict. As supportive evidence, contingency learning has been demonstrated with response conflict-free stimuli, such as neutral words. However, what gives rise to response conflict and to Stroop interference in general is task conflict. The present study investigated whether task conflict can constitute a trigger or, alternatively, a booster to the contingency learning process. This was done by employing a "task conflict-free" condition (i.e., geometric shapes) and comparing it with a "task conflict" condition (i.e., neutral words). The results showed a significant contingency learning effect in both conditions, refuting the possibility that contingency learning is triggered by the presence of a task conflict. Contingency learning was also not enhanced by the task conflict experience, indicating its complete insensitivity to Stroop conflict(s). Thus, the results showed no evidence that performance optimization as a result of contingency learning is greater under conflict, implying that contingency learning is not recruited to assist the control system to overcome conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulia Levin
- Department of Psychology and Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel.
| | - Joseph Tzelgov
- Department of Psychology and Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and Achva Academic College, Israel
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Toledo DR, Manzano GM, Barela JA, Kohn AF. Cortical correlates of response time slowing in older adults: ERP and ERD/ERS analyses during passive ankle movement. Clin Neurophysiol 2016; 127:655-663. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Lich M, Bremmer F. Self-motion perception in the elderly. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:681. [PMID: 25309379 PMCID: PMC4163979 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-motion through space generates a visual pattern called optic flow. It can be used to determine one's direction of self-motion (heading). Previous studies have already shown that this perceptual ability, which is of critical importance during everyday life, changes with age. In most of these studies subjects were asked to judge whether they appeared to be heading to the left or right of a target. Thresholds were found to increase continuously with age. In our current study, we were interested in absolute rather than relative heading judgments and in the question about a potential neural correlate of an age-related deterioration of heading perception. Two groups, older test subjects and younger controls, were shown optic flow stimuli in a virtual-reality setup. Visual stimuli simulated self-motion through a 3-D cloud of dots and subjects had to indicate their perceived heading direction after each trial. In different subsets of experiments we varied individually relevant stimulus parameters: presentation time, number of dots in the display, stereoscopic vs. non-stereoscopic stimulation, and motion coherence. We found decrements in heading performance with age for each stimulus parameter. In a final step we aimed to determine a putative neural basis of this behavioral decline. To this end we modified a neural network model which previously has proven to be capable of reproduce and predict certain aspects of heading perception. We show that the observed data can be modeled by implementing an age related neuronal cell loss in this neural network. We conclude that a continuous decline of certain aspects of motion perception, among them heading, might be based on an age-related progressive loss of groups of neurons being activated by visual motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Lich
- Department Neurophysics, Philipps-Universität Marburg Marburg, Germany
| | - Frank Bremmer
- Department Neurophysics, Philipps-Universität Marburg Marburg, Germany
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