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Barr R, Kirkorian H. Reexamining models of early learning in the digital age: Applications for learning in the wild. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2023; 12:457-472. [PMID: 38223884 PMCID: PMC10783145 DOI: 10.1037/mac0000132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Young children are growing up in an increasingly complicated digital world. Laboratory-based research shows it is cognitively demanding to process and transfer information presented on screens during early childhood. Multiple explanations for this cognitive challenge have been proposed. This review provides an updated comprehensive framework that integrates prior theoretical explanations to develop new testable hypotheses. The review also considers the how the research can be generalized to the "wild" where children engage with multiple commercial products daily. It includes real-world applications for improving children's learning and memory from screen-based media by adding supportive cues and reducing distraction and interference. The review concludes with a call for future collaborative research between researchers, content developers, and families to better understand age-related changes in both short-term and long-term learning from digital media. Finally, policy makers need to be involved to ensure equitable access and to create a safe digital space for all families.
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Arabiat D, Al Jabery M, Robinson S, Whitehead L, Mörelius E. Interactive technology use and child development: A systematic review. Child Care Health Dev 2022. [PMID: 36399381 DOI: 10.1111/cch.13082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is mixed evidence regarding the impact of interactive digital devices on child development. Tentatively some studies suggested that the use of digital devices may correlate negatively with language, executive function, and motor skills. However, attempts to amalgamate this evidence has been limited related to the available number of experimental and cohort studies that have evaluated the impact of digital technology use on child development. We conducted this review to determine the impact of interactive digital devices on child development among children aged 7 years or younger. Interactive technology has been defined as methods, tools, or devices that users interact with in order to achieve specific tasks. DATA SOURCE To carry out this systematic review, databases CINAHL, MEDLINE, Embase, PsychINFO, Scopus and Google Scholar were searched for relevant studies. STUDY SELECTION We used the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for systematic reviews. DATA EXTRACTION Data extraction and synthesis was carried out by two reviewers and checked by a third reviewer. Studies were stratified into tiers depending on the level of evidence provided and the domain of development assessed. RESULTS Fifty-three studies were eligible for inclusion in the review, 39 Tier 1 (randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies) and 16 Tier 2 (descriptive studies). Children's use of interactive digital technology was positively associated with receptive language and executive function and negatively associated or unrelated to motor proficiency. Other critical aspects informing the evidence, such as dose of exposure, intensity, or duration, were inconsistently reported, making estimates of exposure tentative and imprecise. CONCLUSION The studies included in this review were predominantly correlational or comparative in nature and focuses on cognitive domains of learning rather than a specific developmental outcome. It is difficult to generalize our findings beyond the digital devices or applications that have been evaluated by earlier studies. The contextual factors that may moderate the relationship require elaboration in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Arabiat
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia.,The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, QD, Australia
| | | | - Sue Robinson
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, QD, Australia
| | - Lisa Whitehead
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for the Digital Child, Brisbane, QD, Australia
| | - Evalotte Mörelius
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia.,Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden
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3
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McHarg G, Hughes C. Prosocial television and prosocial toddlers: A multi-method, longitudinal investigation. Infant Behav Dev 2021; 62:101526. [PMID: 33461079 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
How screen use might affect early childhood outcomes is an important question for parents, but existing research is patchy. In particular, screen time is often examined in relation to sleep and aggression, but much less is known about its links with prosocial behaviour. To address this gap, we conducted semi-structured observations and interviews / questionnaires with both mothers and fathers in a sample of 195 (predominantly affluent and educated) British families tracked across three time-points, when the first-born child was 14-, 24-, and 36-months old. We also applied an objective coding scheme to assess the relative frequency of prosocial behaviour in the programmes and films children were watching at age 24-months. While our results showed no overall associations between prosocial behaviour and either screen time or screen content, there were interaction effects. Specifically, children whose favourite programmes were slow-paced and rich in prosocial content were particularly likely to show developmental gains in sharing. We discuss these findings in terms of their implications for parents, researchers, and policy makers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle McHarg
- Centre for Family Research, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Claire Hughes
- Centre for Family Research, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
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4
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Speidel R, Zimmermann L, Green L, Brito NH, Subiaul F, Barr R. Optimizing imitation: Examining cognitive factors leading to imitation, overimitation, and goal emulation in preschoolers. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 203:105036. [PMID: 33279827 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.105036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Humans imitate patently irrelevant actions known as overimitation, and rather than decreasing with age, overimitation increases with age. Whereas most overimitation research has focused on social factors associated with overimitation, comparatively little is known about the cognitive- and task-specific features that influence overimitation. Specifically, developmental contrasts between imitation and overimitation are confounded by the addition of irrelevant actions to causally necessary actions, increasing sequence length, cognitive load, and processing costs-variables known to be age dependent. We constructed a novel puzzle box task such that a four-step imitation, four-step overimitation, and two-step efficient sequence could be demonstrated using the same apparatus on video. In Experiments 1 and 2, 2.5- to 5-year-olds randomly assigned to imitation and overimitation groups performed significantly more target actions than baseline control groups. Rates of imitation and overimitation increased as a function of age, with older preschoolers outperforming younger preschoolers in both conditions. In Experiment 3, preschoolers were shown a video of an efficient two-step demonstration prior to testing. After they responded, they were shown a four-step overimitation video and were tested on the same puzzle box. Children imitated the efficient demonstration, but after watching the overimitation video, they also overimitated the irrelevant actions. Once again, older children overimitated more than younger children. Together, results show that preschoolers are faithful, flexible, and persistent overimitators. The fidelity and flexibility of overimitation are constrained not only by social factors but also by basic cognitive processes that vary across age groups. As these constraints diminish, overimitation and flexible (optimal) imitation increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Speidel
- Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA
| | | | - Lawrie Green
- Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA
| | | | | | - Rachel Barr
- Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA.
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5
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Zimmermann L, Frank HE, Subiaul F, Barr R. Applying computational modeling to assess age-, sex-, and strategy-related differences in Spin the Pots, a working memory task for 2- to 4-year-olds. Dev Psychobiol 2020; 63:42-53. [PMID: 32729131 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Working memory (WM) develops rapidly during early childhood. In the present study, visual WM (VSM) was measured using the well-established Spin the Pots task (Hughes & Ensor, 2005), a complex non-verbal eight-location object occlusion task. A self-ordered hiding procedure was adopted to allow for an examination of children's strategy use during a VWM task. Participants (N = 640) between the ages of 2 and 4 years were tested under semi-naturalistic conditions, in the home or in a museum. Computational modeling was used to estimate an expected value for the total trials to complete Spin the Pots via a random search and child performance was compared to expected values. Based on this approach, we determined that children who found six stickers retrieved them in significantly fewer trials than the expected value, excluding chance performance and implicating VWM. Results also showed age-related and sex-related changes in VWM. Between 2 and 4 years of age, 4-year-olds performed significantly better than younger children and girls out-performed the boys. Spontaneous use of a color matching hiding strategy was associated with a higher success rate on the task. Implications of these findings for early development of VWM are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Zimmermann
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Hannah E Frank
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Francys Subiaul
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.,Department of Anthropology, Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.,Institute for Neuroscience and Mind-Brain Institute, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Rachel Barr
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
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6
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Comparison of Imitation From Screens Between Typically Developing Preschoolers and Preschoolers With Autism Spectrum Disorder. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1891/1945-8959.18.2.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Typically developing (TD) children exhibit a transfer deficit imitating significantly less from screen demonstrations compared to a live demonstrations. Although many interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) include video materials, little research exists comparing the effectiveness of video demonstration over live instruction. The current study compared imitation learning from live and screen-based demonstrations of how to make a puzzle by 3- to 4.5-year-old TD children (n = 68) and children with ASD (n = 17). Children were tested on either on a three-dimensional (3D) magnet board (MB) with magnetic puzzle pieces or a 2D touch screen (TS) with virtual puzzle pieces. Neither TD nor ASD children exhibited a transfer deficit suggesting that for this task, the transfer deficit ends around 3 years of age. Children with ASD were less efficient overall than TD children on the task and performed worse than their TD counterparts when they were tested with the 3D MB puzzle. These findings suggest that children with ASD have greater difficulty acting on 3D objects than 2D TSs. Future studies should investigate if TSs can be used to teach children with ASD other tasks (184 words).
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Okeyo DO, Gumo S, Munde EO, Opiyo CO, Omungo ZO, Olyaro M, Ndirangu RK, Ogbureke N, Efange S, Ouma C. Socio-demographic and facility-based determinants of perceived quality of nutrition Services of Pregnant and Lactating Adolescent Girls in Trans-Mara east Sub-County, Narok County, Kenya. BMC Nutr 2019; 5:48. [PMID: 32153961 PMCID: PMC7050766 DOI: 10.1186/s40795-019-0316-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It has been established that use and utilization of nutrition services among adolescents are highly linked to availability, access, cost and quality of care. The main objective of this study was to assess the socio-demographic and facility-based factors as proxies to access to perceived quality of nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive services among adolescents in Trans-Mara East Sub-County, Narok County. Methods The study adopted a cross-sectional approach that employed mixed methods on 291 households. Probability proportionate to size sampling techniques using cluster and simple random methods were used to practically access adolescents who are pregnant or lactating. Data were collected using questionnaires, in-depth interview and Focus Group Discussion. Quantitative data was analyzed descriptively using frequencies and inferentially using odds ratio and Z-test. Framework analysis was employed to analyze qualitative data. Results A nutritionist was more likely to increase overall utilization (considered as a proxy index to access quality nutrition-sensitive and -specific services) by 3.18 times (OR = 3.18, 95% CI = 1.50–6.60, P = 0.002) and nurses 2.7 times (OR = 2.70, 95% CI = 1.40–5.30, P = 0.005). Generally, 80.7 and 69.4% attached positive value to environmental and basic personal hygiene, respectively, as being areas of nutrition-sensitive service delivery with a significant number higher than expected frequency of 50% (P < 0.05). An assessment of facility networks isolated only public health center as the key determinant of overall utilization. Public health centers among other health facilities were more likely to increase utilization (OR = 4.52, 95% CI = 1.50–13.50, P = 0.007). Assessment of distance to facility identified both distances as key determinants of overall utilization as those resident < 1 km from the facilities were 2.4 times more likely to utilize the facilities (OR = 2.42, 95% CI = 1.20–4.80, P = 0.012) while those resident 1-5 km were 5.3 times more likely to utilize the services (OR = 5.34, 95% CI = 1.90–15.10, P = 0.002) relative to longer distances. Finally, on methods of conveying messages, those who received messages through Information Education and Communication (IEC) materials were 7.8 times (OR = 7.85, 95% CI = 1.50–40.50, P = 0.014) and through face-to-face were 3.9 times more likely to utilize the services (OR = 3.91, 95% CI = 1.30–11.90, P = 0.016). Conclusion Critical facility-based determinants of utilization of nutrition services include personnel (mainly nutritionist and nurse), distance and IEC materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Omondi Okeyo
- Kenya Nutritionists and Dieticians Institute, Nairobi, P. O. Box 20436-00100 Kenya
| | - Sussy Gumo
- 2Department of Religion, Theology and Philosophy, Maseno University, School of Arts and Social Science, Maseno, Kenya
| | - Elly O Munde
- Christian Aid-UK, P. O. Box 13864-00800, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sophie Efange
- 4Christian Aid-UK, 35 Lower Marsh, London, SE1 7RL UK
| | - Collins Ouma
- 5Department of Biomedical Science and Technology, Maseno University, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno, Kenya
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Moser A, Olsen S, Rusnak SN, Barr R, Gerhardstein P. How self-generated labelling shapes transfer of learning during early childhood: The role of individual differences. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 37:68-83. [PMID: 29981173 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Multiple factors influence imitation during toddlerhood, including task complexity, social contingency, and individual differences. We conducted a secondary data analysis of individual differences in self-generated labelling using data collected from a complex puzzle imitation task with 355 2- to 3-year-olds. This analysis indicated that toddlers' ability to label the completed puzzle (fish or boat) was associated with better imitation performance. Labelling occurs during social interactions; therefore, our second analysis tested how labelling differed as a function of the level of social scaffolding in each condition. This analysis revealed that self-generated labelling was lower when the social demonstrator was removed and the task was presented on a touchscreen. This study is one of the first to examine self-generated labelling during a complex imitation task in toddlers and increases our understanding of the complexity of memory processing needed for imitation learning. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Toddlers exhibit a transfer of learning deficit from 2D media, including books, TV, and tablets. Self-generated labelling enhances children's learning, through attentional and cognitive mechanisms. Children are sensitive to reduced social cues in screen media contributing to the transfer deficit. What does this study add? Self-generated labelling is associated with better goal imitation performance. Self-generated labelling occurs more frequently under social conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alecia Moser
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, New York, USA
| | - Sarah Olsen
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, New York, USA
| | - Sylvia N Rusnak
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Rachel Barr
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
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9
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Twomey KE, Ma L, Westermann G. All the Right Noises: Background Variability Helps Early Word Learning. Cogn Sci 2018; 42 Suppl 2:413-438. [PMID: 28940612 PMCID: PMC6001535 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Variability is prevalent in early language acquisition, but, whether it supports or hinders learning is unclear; while target variability has been shown to facilitate word learning, variability in competitor items has been shown to make the task harder. Here, we tested whether background variability could boost learning in a referent selection task. Two groups of 2-year-old children saw arrays of one novel and two known objects on a screen, and they heard a novel or known label. Stimuli were identical across conditions, with the exception that in the constant color condition objects appeared on a uniform white background, and in the variable color condition backgrounds were different, uniform colors. At test, only children in the variable condition showed evidence of retaining label-object associations. These data support findings from the adult memory literature, which suggest that variability supports learning by decontextualizing representations. We argue that these data are consistent with dynamic systems accounts of learning in which low-level entropy adds sufficient noise to the developmental system to precipitate a change in behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lizhi Ma
- Department of PsychologyLancaster University
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10
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Barr R, Moser A, Rusnak S, Zimmermann L, Dickerson K, Lee H, Gerhardstein P. The impact of memory load and perceptual cues on puzzle learning by 24-month olds. Dev Psychobiol 2017; 58:817-828. [PMID: 27753456 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Early childhood is characterized by memory capacity limitations and rapid perceptual and motor development [Rovee-Collier (1996). Infant Behavior & Development, 19, 385-400]. The present study examined 2-year olds' reproduction of a sliding action to complete an abstract fish puzzle under different levels of memory load and perceptual feature support. Experimental groups were compared to baseline controls to assess spontaneous rates of production of the target actions; baseline production was low across all experiments. Memory load was manipulated in Exp. 1 by adding pieces to the puzzle, increasing sequence length from 2 to 3 items, and to 3 items plus a distractor. Although memory load did not influence how toddlers learned to manipulate the puzzle pieces, it did influence toddlers' achievement of the goal-constructing the fish. Overall, girls were better at constructing the puzzle than boys. In Exp. 2, the perceptual features of the puzzle were altered by changing shape boundaries to create a two-piece horizontally cut puzzle (displaying bilateral symmetry), and by adding a semantically supportive context to the vertically cut puzzle (iconic). Toddlers were able to achieve the goal of building the fish equally well across the 2-item puzzle types (bilateral symmetry, vertical, iconic), but how they learned to manipulate the puzzle pieces varied as a function of the perceptual features. Here, as in Exp. 1, girls showed a different pattern of performance from the boys. This study demonstrates that changes in memory capacity and perceptual processing influence both goal-directed imitation learning and motoric performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Barr
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia.
| | - Alecia Moser
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University-SUNY, Binghamton, New York
| | - Sylvia Rusnak
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Laura Zimmermann
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Kelly Dickerson
- Human Research and Engineering Directorate, United States Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
| | - Herietta Lee
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Peter Gerhardstein
- Department of Psychology, Binghamton University-SUNY, Binghamton, New York
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Zimmermann L, Moser A, Lee H, Gerhardstein P, Barr R. The Ghost in the Touchscreen: Social Scaffolds Promote Learning by Toddlers. Child Dev 2016; 88:2013-2025. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Taylor G, Liu H, Herbert JS. The role of verbal labels on flexible memory retrieval at 12-months of age. Infant Behav Dev 2016; 45:11-17. [PMID: 27564220 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The provision of verbal labels enhances 12-month-old infants' memory flexibility across a form change in a puppet imitation task (Herbert, 2011), although the mechanisms for this effect remain unclear. Here we investigate whether verbal labels can scaffold flexible memory retrieval when task difficulty increases and consider the mechanism responsible for the effect of language cues on early memory flexibility. Twelve-month-old infants were provided with English, Chinese, or empty language cues during a difficult imitation task, a combined change in the puppet's colour and form at the test (Hayne et al., 1997). Imitation performance by infants in the English language condition only exceeded baseline performance after the 10-min delay. Thus, verbal labels facilitated flexible memory retrieval on this task. There were no correlations between infants' language comprehension and imitation performance. Thus, it is likely that verbal labels facilitate both attention and categorisation during encoding and retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Taylor
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YF, UK
| | - Hao Liu
- Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jane S Herbert
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK; School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, 2522, Australia.
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