The sweetest thing: the influence of angularity, symmetry, and the number of elements on shape-valence and shape-taste matches

Measures of angularity in digital images

In light of the growing interest in studying the affective and aesthetic attributes of curvature, the present paper describes four digital image processing techniques that can be used to objectively discriminate between angular and curvilinear stimuli. MATLAB scripts for each of the techniques accompany the paper. Three studies are then reported that evaluate the efficacy of five metrics, derived from the four techniques, at quantifying the degree of angularity depicted in an image. Images of simple polygons (Study 1), artistic drawings of everyday objects (Study 2), and real-world objects, typefaces, and abstract patterns (Study 3) were analyzed. Logistic regression models were used to determine the relative importance of the metrics at distinguishing between angular and curvilinear items. With one exception, all of the metrics were capable of distinguishing between angular and curvilinear items at a level above chance, but some metrics were better at doing so than others, and their discriminative capacity was influenced by the characteristics of the image. The strengths and limitations of the metrics are discussed, as well as some practical recommendations.

Shape variety of food can boost its visual appeal

We investigated whether food shape and its variety within a group affect visual appeal using a four-shaped fast-food chicken product known as Chicken McNuggets®. In Experiment 1, participants rated the visual appeal of each nugget shape both individually and when presented in groups of variously shaped nuggets. The results revealed that the rounder nugget was less visually appealing than those of other shapes. Additionally, assortments featuring various shapes were rated as more appealing than those of a single shape. In Experiment 2, the visual appeal of individual nuggets presented in groups and alone was assessed using a visual analog scale. The visual appeal of one specific nugget (target nugget) was higher when presented in a group than alone. Furthermore, a target nugget presented in a group with various shapes was more visually appealing than when presented in a group with the same shape, regardless of the shape of the target nugget. These results suggest that a food product with low visual appeal can be perceived as more appealing when it is presented alongside various food shapes. Indeed, the variety of food shapes presented in a group affected the perceived appeal both of the group and of the individual food item. These findings offer novel insights into the impact of food's visual variation on its appeal.

Unpacking the Influence of Visual Density on Pizza Packaging: Sensory Expectations and Purchase Intentions

Visual density, defined as the number of identifiable elements per unit area within a visual design, significantly influences consumer perceptions. This study investigates the effects of varying visual densities in pizza packaging, encompassing both food-related and decorative elements, on consumers' expectations regarding taste and texture, ultimately influencing their purchase decisions. We conducted a controlled experiment where participants were presented with pizza boxes of differing visual densities. Participants rated their expectations regarding the taste and texture of the pizza, as well as their purchase intentions. Additionally, we measured consumption frequency to evaluate its moderating influence on the observed effects. Results indicate that high-visual-density packaging significantly heightened expectations of taste and texture, independent of the element's nature-whether food-related or decorative. Enhanced sensory expectations fully mediated the relationship between visual density and purchase intentions. Additionally, high consumption frequency amplified the effect of high visual density on sensory expectations and purchase intentions. These findings contribute to sensory marketing theory by highlighting the importance of visual density in packaging design and the role of consumption frequency. They provide practical implications for food packaging strategies aimed at enhancing consumer experience and satisfaction.

The effects of anxiety on taste perception: The role of awareness

Prior research indicate that emotional states can alter taste perception, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study explores whether taste perception changes due to the mere evocation of emotions or the cognitive awareness of emotions. The first experiment investigated how anxiety affects taste perception when individuals are aware of their anxiety. Participants watched videos inducing relaxation or anxiety, then were divided into groups focusing on their emotions and those who did not, and the taste perception was measure. The second experiment investigated the influence of awareness directed toward emotions on taste evaluation, without manipulating emotional states. This focused on cognitive processing of taste through evaluations of visual stimuli. Results showed that sweetness perception is suppressed by the evocation of anxiety, whereas bitterness perception is enhanced only by anxiety with awareness. These findings indicate that the mechanisms by which emotional states affect taste perception may differ depending on taste quality.

Marble melancholy: using crossmodal correspondences of shapes, materials, and music to predict music-induced emotions

Introduction

Music is known to elicit strong emotions in listeners, and, if primed appropriately, can give rise to specific and observable crossmodal correspondences. This study aimed to assess two primary objectives: (1) identifying crossmodal correspondences emerging from music-induced emotions, and (2) examining the predictability of music-induced emotions based on the association of music with visual shapes and materials.

Methods

To achieve this, 176 participants were asked to associate visual shapes and materials with the emotion classes of the Geneva Music-Induced Affect Checklist scale (GEMIAC) elicited by a set of musical excerpts in an online experiment.

Results

Our findings reveal that music-induced emotions and their underlying core affect (i.e., valence and arousal) can be accurately predicted by the joint information of musical excerpt and features of visual shapes and materials associated with these music-induced emotions. Interestingly, valence and arousal induced by music have higher predictability than discrete GEMIAC emotions.

Discussion

These results demonstrate the relevance of crossmodal correspondences in studying music-induced emotions. The potential applications of these findings in the fields of sensory interactions design, multisensory experiences and art, as well as digital and sensory marketing are briefly discussed.

Crossmodal correspondences between visual features and tastes in preschoolers: an exploratory study

Introduction

Adults possess a natural inclination to associate sensory cues derived from distinct modalities, such as the pairing of sweet with pink. However, studies exploring crossmodal correspondences in children, particularly in the sensory pairing of visual features and tastes, are scant, leaving unanswered questions regarding the developmental trajectory of crossmodal correspondences. The present study investigates whether Japanese preschool children demonstrate specific biases in shape-color, shape-taste, and color-taste associations.

Methods

In a series of in-person experiments, 92 children between 3 to 6 years of age completed matching tasks utilizing paper stimuli.

Results

Children exhibit crossmodal correspondences in shape-color (circle-red and asymmetrical star-yellow), shape-taste (triangle-salty and circle-sweet), and color-taste (yellow-sour, black-bitter, and pink-sweet) associations. Moreover, children's choices are not influenced by their individual preferences.

Discussion

The crossmodal correspondences observed in this study have been observed in previous research on adults from the same (Japanese) culture, although adults showed more crossmodal correspondences than the children in this study (e.g., pink-circle, triangle-sour, and green-bitter). Thus, while some crossmodal correspondences emerge during childhood, others may require additional time to develop, thereby highlighting the importance of understanding the cognitive mechanisms underlying crossmodal correspondences from an ontogenic perspective.

The influence of Bouba- and Kiki-like shape on perceived taste of chocolate pieces

In this paper, we present the findings of a study investigating the impact of shape on the taste perception of chocolate. Previous research has explored the influence of various sensory information on taste perception, but there has been little focus on the effect of food shape being eaten on taste perception. To explore this, we focused on the Bouba-Kiki effect, illustrating an interaction between shape and several modalities, and investigated the effect of Bouba- and Kiki-shaped (rounded and angular) foods eaten on taste perception. We utilized a 3D food printer to produce four different shapes of chocolate pieces based on the Bouba-Kiki. Participants tasted each piece and completed a chocolate flavor questionnaire. With Bayesian analysis, we determined that the Bouba-shaped chocolate pieces were perceived as sweeter than the Kiki-shaped ones, supporting earlier studies on crossmodal correspondences between shape and taste perception. However, there were no significant differences in ratings of other tastes, such as sourness and bitterness. Our research indicates that shape can affect taste perception during consumption and suggests that 3D food printers offer an opportunity to design specific shapes that influence taste experiences.

Influence of letter shape on readers' emotional experience, reading fluency, and text comprehension and memorisation

Introduction

The amount of educational material delivered to pupils and students through digital screens is increasing. This method of delivering educational materials has become even more prevalent during the COVID-19 pandemic. To be as effective as possible, educational material must be properly designed not only in terms of content, but also in terms of form, e.g., the typeface. The present study investigated the effect of letter shape on readers' feelings of pleasantness during reading, reading fluency, and text comprehension and memorisation.

Methods

To find out whether age influences the effects of typeface shape on reading measures, we divided the participants into a group of less experienced readers (children) and more experienced readers (adults). Both groups read texts in eight different typefaces: four of them were round or in rounded shape, and four were angular or in pointed shape. With an eye-tracker, the reading speed and the number of regressive saccades were recorded as measures of reading fluency and changes in pupil size as an indicator of emotional response. After reading each text, the participants rated the pleasantness of the typeface, and their comprehension and memorisation of texts were checked by asking two questions about the text content.

Results

We found that compared to angular letters or letters in pointed shape, round letters or letters in round shape created more pleasant feelings for readers and lead to a faster reading speed. Children, as expected, read more slowly due to less reading experiences, but, interestingly, had a similar number of regressive saccades and did not comprehend or remember the text worse than university students.

Discussion

We concluded that softer typefaces of rounder shapes should be used in educational materials, as they make the reading process easier and thus support the learning process better for both younger and adult readers. The results of our study also showed that a comparison of findings of different studies may depend on the differences among the used letter shapes.

Crossmodal correspondences between basic tastes and visual design features: A narrative historical review

People tend to associate abstract visual features with basic taste qualities. This narrative historical review critically evaluates the literature on these associations, often referred to as crossmodal correspondences, between basic tastes and visual design features such as color hue and shape curvilinearity. The patterns, discrepancies, and evolution in the development of the research are highlighted while the mappings that have been reported to date are summarized. The review also reflects on issues of cross-cultural validity and deviations in the matching patterns that are observed when correspondences are assessed with actual tastants versus with verbal stimuli. The various theories that have been proposed to account for different classes of crossmodal correspondence are discussed, among which the statistical and affective (or emotional-mediation) accounts currently appear most promising. Several critical research questions for the future are presented to address the gaps that have been identified in the literature and help validate the popular theories on the origin and operations of visual-taste correspondences.

Visual communication via the design of food and beverage packaging

A rapidly growing body of empirical research has recently started to emerge highlighting the connotative and/or semiotic meanings that consumers typically associate with specific abstract visual design features, such as colours (either when presented individually or in combination), simple shapes/curvilinearity, and the orientation and relative position of those design elements on product packaging. While certain of our affective responses to such basic visual design features appear almost innate, the majority are likely established via the internalization of the statistical regularities of the food and beverage marketplace (i.e. as a result of associative learning), as in the case of round typeface and sweet-tasting products. Researchers continue to document the wide range of crossmodal correspondences that underpin the links between individual visual packaging design features and specific properties of food and drink products (such as their taste, flavour, or healthfulness), and the ways in which marketers are now capitalizing on such understanding to increase sales. This narrative review highlights the further research that is still needed to establish the connotative or symbolic/semiotic meaning(s) of particular combinations of design features (such as coloured stripes in a specific orientation), as opposed to individual cues in national food markets and also, increasingly, cross-culturally in the case of international brands.

Contour features predict valence and threat judgements in scenes

Quickly scanning an environment to determine relative threat is an essential part of survival. Scene gist extracted rapidly from the environment may help people detect threats. Here, we probed this link between emotional judgements and features of visual scenes. We first extracted curvature, length, and orientation statistics of all images in the International Affective Picture System image set and related them to emotional valence scores. Images containing angular contours were rated as negative, and images containing long contours as positive. We then composed new abstract line drawings with specific combinations of length, angularity, and orientation values and asked participants to rate them as positive or negative, and as safe or threatening. Smooth, long, horizontal contour scenes were rated as positive/safe, while short angular contour scenes were rated as negative/threatening. Our work shows that particular combinations of image features help people make judgements about potential threat in the environment.

People With High Autistic Traits Show Fewer Consensual Crossmodal Correspondences Between Visual Features and Tastes

Crossmodal correspondences between visual features (e.g., color/shape) and tastes have been extensively documented in recent years. Visual colors and shapes have been shown to consensually match to specific tastes. Meanwhile, individuals with autism spectrum disorder are reported to have atypical sensory processing and deficits in multisensory integration. However, the influence of autistic traits on the formation of such correspondences is relatively unknown. Here, we examined whether autistic traits could influence visual–taste associations using an online questionnaire survey among Japanese participants. The results showed that the participants exhibited strong color–taste, shape–taste, and shape–color associations, and the proportions of choosing the consensual color–taste/shape–color associations were significantly associated with autistic traits. The participants with higher autistic quotient scores chose fewer of the consensual color–taste/shape–color associations while there was no difference in choosing shape–taste associations. We interpreted the results as statistical learning with a reduced prior knowledge effect in participants with higher autistic quotient scores.

The shape of you: do individuals associate particular geometric shapes with identity?

For more than a century, psychologists have been interested in how visual information can arouse emotions. Several studies have shown that rounded shapes evoke positive feelings due to their link with happy/baby-like expressions, compared with sharp angular shapes, usually associated with anger and threatening objects having negative valence. However, to date, no-one has investigated the preference to associate simple geometric shapes to personal identities, including one’s own, that of a close acquainted, or that of a stranger. Through 2 online surveys we asked participants to associate a geometric shape, chosen among a circle, a square and a triangle, to each of three identities, namely “you” (the self), “your best friend” or “a stranger”. We hypothesized that the circle would be more associated with the self, the square with the friend and the triangle with the stranger. Moreover, we investigated whether these associations are modulated by 3 personality traits: aggressivity, social fear and empathy. As predicted, we found that participants associate more often the circle with the self, both the circle and the square with the best friend, whereas they matched angular shapes (both the triangle and the square) to the stranger. On the other hand, the possibility that personality traits can modulate such associations was not confirmed. The study of how people associate geometric figures with the self or with other identities giving them an implicit socio-affective connotation, is interesting for all the disciplines interested in the automatic affective processes activated by visual stimuli.

Sonic Seasoning and Other Multisensory Influences on the Coffee Drinking Experience

The coffee drinking experience undoubtedly depends greatly on the quality of the coffee bean and the method of preparation. However, beyond the product-intrinsic qualities of the beverage itself, there are also a host of other product-extrinsic factors that have been shown to influence the coffee-drinking experience. This review summarizes the influence of everything from the multisensory atmosphere through to the sound of coffee preparation, and from the typeface on the coffee packaging through the drinking vessel. Furthermore, the emerging science around sonic seasoning, whereby specific pieces of music or soundscapes, either pre-composed or bespoke, are used to bring out specific aspects in the taste (e.g., sweetness or bitterness) or aroma/flavor (nutty, dark chocolate, dried fruit notes, etc.) of a coffee beverage is also discussed in depth. Relevant related research with other complex drinks such as beer and wine are also mentioned where relevant.

The Relationship of Symmetry, Complexity, and Shape in Mobile Interface Aesthetics, from an Emotional Perspective—A Case Study of the Smartwatch

Products with interactive interfaces can be seen everywhere, and product interface design aesthetics is a topic that has begun to receive wide attention. Consumers’ perceptions of product interfaces come from their own emotions, and emotion plays a significant role in product interface design aesthetics. In other words, it must meet the users’ emotional and aesthetic requirements. Therefore, we need to better understand the aesthetic design criteria and how they stimulate specific emotional responses. This study takes the dial interface of smartwatches as its experimental sample and explores how the interaction effects of the screen shape (square and round) and the symmetry type and the complexity type of the interface design influence the users’ emotional arousal and valence. In addition, it analyzes the effects of the symmetry type, the complexity type, and the screen shape on the users’ arousal and valence. The results show that the attributes of interface design aesthetics (symmetry-asymmetry, complexity-simplicity, and square-round) affect the users’ emotional responses. Moreover, the interface shape is one of the important factors in the emotional response to an interface design. This paper, based on previous research, provides vital theoretical support for the relevant literature on interface design aesthetics and the users’ emotional state. In addition, it may provide a reference for designers and developers who wish to develop and implement emotional user interfaces that are designed to more effectively appeal to their emotions.

A Critical Analysis of Colour-Shape Correspondences: Examining the Replicability of Colour-Shape Associations

Research on the topic of colour-shape correspondences started in the early 20th century with the Bauhaus artist Wassily Kandinsky. However, more recently, the topic has been examined using the empirical framework of crossmodal correspondences research. The field remains one in which consistent results and generalisable hypotheses about the existence and nature of colour-shape correspondences are lacking. The replicability and consistency of findings concerning colour-shape correspondences are examined in three online colour-shape matching experiments using the same procedure and study design while varying the sets of shape stimuli that are evaluated. Participants matched one of 36 colours to each shape as well as made preference and arousal appraisal ratings for each of the shapes and colours. The complexities of analysing colour-shape correspondence data are discussed and illustrated by classifying and analysing shape and colours in a variety of different ways, including using continuous perceptual and objective measures. Significant colour-shape associations were found. However, as hypothesised, limited consistent results in regard to what perceptual shape characteristics predicted colour choices were documented across the three stimuli sets. This was the case both within and across different analysis methods. The factors that may be responsible for these inconsistencies are critically discussed. Intriguingly, however, evidence for emotional mediation, whereby shape and colour liking and arousal appraisals appear to influence the colour-shape correspondences made by participants, was found across all three experiments.

"Smooth operator": Music modulates the perceived creaminess, sweetness, and bitterness of chocolate

There has been a recent growth of interest in determining whether sound (specifically music and soundscapes) can enhance not only the basic taste attributes associated with food and beverage items (such as sweetness, bitterness, sourness, etc.), but also other important components of the tasting experience, such as, for instance, crunchiness, creaminess, and/or carbonation. In the present study, participants evaluated the perceived creaminess of chocolate. Two contrasting soundtracks were produced with such texture-correspondences in mind, and validated by means of a pre-test. The participants tasted the same chocolate twice (without knowing that the chocolates were identical), each time listening to one of the soundtracks. The 'creamy' soundtrack enhanced the perceived creaminess and sweetness of the chocolates, as compared to the ratings given while listening to the 'rough' soundtrack. Moreover, while the participants preferred the creamy soundtrack, this difference did not appear to affect their overall enjoyment of the chocolates. Interestingly, and in contrast with previous similar studies, these results demonstrate that in certain cases, sounds can have a perceptual effect on gustatory food attributes without necessarily altering the hedonic experience.

What's in a Face? How Face Gender and Current Affect Influence Perceived Emotion

Faces drive our social interactions. A vast literature suggests an interaction between gender and emotional face perception, with studies using different methodologies demonstrating that the gender of a face can affect how emotions are processed. However, how different is our perception of affective male and female faces? Furthermore, how does our current affective state when viewing faces influence our perceptual biases? We presented participants with a series of faces morphed along an emotional continuum from happy to angry. Participants judged each face morph as either happy or angry. We determined each participant's unique emotional 'neutral' point, defined as the face morph judged to be perceived equally happy and angry, separately for male and female faces. We also assessed how current state affect influenced these perceptual neutral points. Our results indicate that, for both male and female participants, the emotional neutral point for male faces is perceptually biased to be happier than for female faces. This bias suggests that more happiness is required to perceive a male face as emotionally neutral, i.e., we are biased to perceive a male face as more negative. Interestingly, we also find that perceptual biases in perceiving female faces are correlated with current mood, such that positive state affect correlates with perceiving female faces as happier, while we find no significant correlation between negative state affect and the perception of facial emotion. Furthermore, we find reaction time biases, with slower responses for angry male faces compared to angry female faces.

The semantic basis of taste-shape associations

Previous research shows that people systematically match tastes with shapes. Here, we assess the extent to which matched taste and shape stimuli share a common semantic space and whether semantically congruent versus incongruent taste/shape associations can influence the speed with which people respond to both shapes and taste words. In Experiment 1, semantic differentiation was used to assess the semantic space of both taste words and shapes. The results suggest a common semantic space containing two principal components (seemingly, intensity and hedonics) and two principal clusters, one including round shapes and the taste word “sweet,” and the other including angular shapes and the taste words “salty,” “sour,” and “bitter.” The former cluster appears more positively-valenced whilst less potent than the latter. In Experiment 2, two speeded classification tasks assessed whether congruent versus incongruent mappings of stimuli and responses (e.g., sweet with round versus sweet with angular) would influence the speed of participants’ responding, to both shapes and taste words. The results revealed an overall effect of congruence with congruent trials yielding faster responses than their incongruent counterparts. These results are consistent with previous evidence suggesting a close relation (or crossmodal correspondence) between tastes and shape curvature that may derive from common semantic coding, perhaps along the intensity and hedonic dimensions.

Simple lines and shapes are associated with, and communicate, distinct emotions

We investigated whether lines and shapes that present face-like features would be associated with emotions. In Experiment 1, participants associated concave, convex, or straight lines with the words happy or sad. Participants found it easiest to associate the concave line with happy and the convex line with sad. In Experiment 2, participants rated (valence, pleasantness, liking, and tension) and categorised (valence and emotion words) two convex and concave lines that were paired with six distinct pairs of eyes. The presence of eyes affected participants' valence ratings and response latencies; more congruent eye-mouth matches produced more consistent ratings and faster reaction times. In Experiment 3, we examined whether dots that resembled eyes would be associated with emotional words. Participants found it easier to match certain sets of dots with specific emotions. These results suggest that facial gestures that are associated with specific emotions can be captured using relatively simple shapes and lines.