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Meng Q, Huang R, Li H, Gong X, Yue D, Jiang W, Tian Y, Dong K. Analysis of comb-gnawing behavior in Apis cerana cerana (Hymenoptera: Apidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2024; 24:19. [PMID: 38417131 PMCID: PMC10901539 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieae020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Apis cerana cerana exhibits a prominent biological trait known as comb gnawing. In this study, gnawed combs from colonies during different seasons were collected, investigating the comb age and locations of gnawing. Patterns of comb gnawing were recorded, and the effects of 2 factors, namely, comb type and season, on the mass of wax residues and the gnawed surface area were measured. The results revealed that A. c. cerana predominantly gnaws combs that have been used for over 6 months, with gnawing concentrated in the brood-rearing area. In the first 3 seasons, significantly higher masses of wax residues and larger gnawed surface areas were found in greater wax moth larvae (GWML)-infested combs compared to newly built and old combs. Also, there were significantly higher masses and areas gnawed by A. c. cerana in old combs compared to newly built combs in all 4 seasons. Compared to other seasons, it exhibited significantly higher masses and areas resulting from comb-gnawing in newly built or old combs in winter. However, there were no significant differences in the masses of wax residues and surface areas gnawed in GWML-infested combs across the first 3 seasons. In conclusion, this study documented the impact of comb type and season on the comb-gnawing behavior of A. c. cerana, contributing to beekeeping management practices and the current understanding of bee biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Meng
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Rong Huang
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Hui Li
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Xueyang Gong
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Dan Yue
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Wutao Jiang
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Yakai Tian
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Kun Dong
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
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2
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Gallo V, Bridges AD, Woodgate JL, Chittka L. Sub-cell scale features govern the placement of new cells by honeybees during comb construction. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2023; 209:793-805. [PMID: 37160812 PMCID: PMC10465656 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-023-01632-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Honeybee comb architecture and the manner of its construction have long been the subject of scientific curiosity. Comb is characterised by an even hexagonal layout and the sharing of cell bases and side walls, which provides maximised storage volume while requiring minimal wax. The efficiency of this structure relies on a regular layout and the correct positioning of cells relative to each other, with each new cell placed at the junction of two previously constructed cells. This task is complicated by the incomplete nature of cells at the edge of comb, where new cells are to be built. We presented bees with wax stimuli comprising shallow depressions and protuberances in simulation of features found within partially formed comb, and demonstrated that construction work by honeybee builders was influenced by these stimuli. The building of new cells was aligned to concave stimuli that simulated the clefts that naturally appear between two partially formed cells, revealing how new cells may be aligned to ensure proper tessellation within comb. We also found that bees built cell walls in response to edges formed by our stimuli, suggesting that cell and wall construction was specifically directed towards the locations necessary for continuation of hexagonal comb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Gallo
- Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK.
| | - Alice D Bridges
- Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - Joseph L Woodgate
- Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - Lars Chittka
- Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK
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3
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Marting PR, Koger B, Smith ML. Manipulating nest architecture reveals three-dimensional building strategies and colony resilience in honeybees. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20222565. [PMID: 37161326 PMCID: PMC10170196 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Form follows function throughout the development of an organism. This principle should apply beyond the organism to the nests they build, but empirical studies are lacking. Honeybees provide a uniquely suited system to study nest form and function throughout development because we can image the three-dimensional structure repeatedly and non-destructively. Here, we tracked nest-wide comb growth in six colonies over 45 days (control colonies) and found that colonies have a stereotypical process of development that maintains a spheroid nest shape. To experimentally test if nest structure is important for colony function, we shuffled the nests of an additional six colonies, weekly rearranging the comb positions and orientations (shuffled colonies). Surprisingly, we found no differences between control and shuffled colonies in multiple colony performance metrics-worker population, comb area, hive weight and nest temperature. However, using predictive modelling to examine how workers allocate comb to expand their nests, we show that shuffled colonies compensate for these disruptions by accounting for the three-dimensional structure to reconnect their nest. This suggests that nest architecture is more flexible than previously thought, and that superorganisms have mechanisms to compensate for drastic architectural perturbations and maintain colony function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter R. Marting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Benjamin Koger
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz 78464, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78464, Germany
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78464, Germany
| | - Michael L. Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz 78464, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78464, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78464, Germany
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4
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Fajstavr D, Fajstavrová K, Frýdlová B, Slepičková Kasálková N, Švorčík V, Slepička P. Biopolymer Honeycomb Microstructures: A Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:772. [PMID: 36676507 PMCID: PMC9863042 DOI: 10.3390/ma16020772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we present a comprehensive summary of the formation of honeycomb microstructures and their applications, which include tissue engineering, antibacterial materials, replication processes or sensors. The history of the honeycomb pattern, the first experiments, which mostly involved the breath figure procedure and the improved phase separation, the most recent approach to honeycomb pattern formation, are described in detail. Subsequent surface modifications of the pattern, which involve physical and chemical modifications and further enhancement of the surface properties, are also introduced. Different aspects influencing the polymer formation, such as the substrate influence, a particular polymer or solvent, which may significantly contribute to pattern formation, and thus influence the target structural properties, are also discussed.
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Xing T, Yan H, Sun K, Wang Y, Wang X, Zhao Q. Honeycomb: An open-source distributed system for smart buildings. PATTERNS 2022; 3:100605. [DOI: 10.1016/j.patter.2022.100605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Ordering and topological defects in social wasps' nests. Sci Rep 2022; 12:12901. [PMID: 35902614 PMCID: PMC9334299 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-16836-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Social insects have evolved a variety of architectural formations. Bees and wasps are well known for their ability to achieve compact structures by building hexagonal cells. Polistes wattii, an open nesting paper wasp species, builds planar hexagonal structures. Here, using the pair correlation function approach, we show that their nests exhibit short-range hexagonal order (no long-range order) akin to amorphous materials. Hexagonal orientational order was well preserved globally. We also show the presence of topological defects such as dislocations (pentagon-heptagon disclination pairs) and Stone-Wales quadrupoles, and discuss how these defects were organised in the nest, thereby restoring order. Furthermore, we suggest the possible role of such defects in shaping nesting architectures of other social insect species.
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Stigmergy versus behavioral flexibility and planning in honeybee comb construction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2111310118. [PMID: 34385331 PMCID: PMC8379949 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2111310118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Smith ML, Napp N, Petersen KH. Imperfect comb construction reveals the architectural abilities of honeybees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2103605118. [PMID: 34312229 PMCID: PMC8346884 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2103605118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Honeybees are renowned for their perfectly hexagonal honeycomb, hailed as the pinnacle of biological architecture for its ability to maximize storage area while minimizing building material. However, in natural nests, workers must regularly transition between different cell sizes, merge inconsistent combs, and optimize construction in constrained geometries. These spatial obstacles pose challenges to workers building perfect hexagons, but it is unknown to what extent workers act as architects versus simple automatons during these irregular building scenarios. Using automated image analysis to extract the irregularities in natural comb building, we show that some building configurations are more difficult for the bees than others, and that workers overcome these challenges using a combination of building techniques, such as: intermediate-sized cells, regular motifs of irregular shapes, and gradual modifications of cell tilt. Remarkably, by anticipating these building challenges, workers achieve high-quality merges using limited local sensing, on par with analytical models that require global optimization. Unlike automatons building perfectly replicated hexagons, these building irregularities showcase the active role that workers take in shaping their nest and the true architectural abilities of honeybees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849;
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Nils Napp
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - Kirstin H Petersen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
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9
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Yang S, Deng S, Kuang H, Zhou D, Gong X, Dong K. Evaluating and Comparing the Natural Cell Structure and Dimensions of Honey Bee Comb Cells of Chinese Bee, Apis cerana cerana (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and Italian Bee, Apis mellifera ligustica (Hymenoptera: Apidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2021; 21:6313200. [PMID: 34214154 PMCID: PMC8253300 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieab042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The hexagonal structure of the honey bee comb cell has been the source of many studies attempting to understand its structure and function. In the storage area of the comb, only honey is stored and no brood is reared. We predicted that honey bees may construct different hexagonal cells for brood rearing and honey storage. We used quantitative analyses to evaluate the structure and function of the natural comb cell in the Chinese bee, Apis cerana cerana and the Italian bee, A. mellifera ligustica. We made cell molds using a crystal glue solution and measured the structure and inclination of cells. We found that the comb cells of A. c. cerana had both upward-sloping and downward-sloping cells; while the A. m. ligustica cells all tilted upwards. Interestingly, the cells did not conform to the regular hexagonal prism structure and showed irregular diameter sizes. In both species, comb cells also were differentiated into worker, drone and honey cells, differing in their diameter and depth. This study revealed unique differences in the structure and function of comb cells and showed that honey bees design their cells with precise engineering to increase storage capacity, and to create adequate growing room for their brood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunhua Yang
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Shangkao Deng
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Haiou Kuang
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Danyin Zhou
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Xueyang Gong
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Kun Dong
- Yunnan Provincial Engineering and Research Center for Sustainable Utilization of Honeybee Resources, Eastern Bee Research Institute, College of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
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10
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Leung A, Cohen D, van Swinderen B, Tsuchiya N. Integrated information structure collapses with anesthetic loss of conscious arousal in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008722. [PMID: 33635858 PMCID: PMC7946294 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The physical basis of consciousness remains one of the most elusive concepts in current science. One influential conjecture is that consciousness is to do with some form of causality, measurable through information. The integrated information theory of consciousness (IIT) proposes that conscious experience, filled with rich and specific content, corresponds directly to a hierarchically organised, irreducible pattern of causal interactions; i.e. an integrated informational structure among elements of a system. Here, we tested this conjecture in a simple biological system (fruit flies), estimating the information structure of the system during wakefulness and general anesthesia. Consistent with this conjecture, we found that integrated interactions among populations of neurons during wakefulness collapsed to isolated clusters of interactions during anesthesia. We used classification analysis to quantify the accuracy of discrimination between wakeful and anesthetised states, and found that informational structures inferred conscious states with greater accuracy than a scalar summary of the structure, a measure which is generally championed as the main measure of IIT. In stark contrast to a view which assumes feedforward architecture for insect brains, especially fly visual systems, we found rich information structures, which cannot arise from purely feedforward systems, occurred across the fly brain. Further, these information structures collapsed uniformly across the brain during anesthesia. Our results speak to the potential utility of the novel concept of an “informational structure” as a measure for level of consciousness, above and beyond simple scalar values. The physical basis of consciousness remains elusive. Efforts to measure consciousness have generally been restricted to simple, scalar quantities which summarise the complexity of a system, inspired by integrated information theory, which links a multi-dimensional, informational structure to the contents of experience in a system. Due to the complexity of the definition of the structure, assessment of its utility as a measure of conscious arousal in a system has largely been ignored. In this manuscript we evaluate the utility of such an information structure in measuring the level of arousal in the fruit fly. Our results indicate that this structure can be more informative about the level of arousal in a system than even the single-value summary proposed by the theory itself. These results may push consciousness research towards the notion of multi-dimensional informational structures, instead of traditional scalar summaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus Leung
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- * E-mail: (AL); (NT)
| | - Dror Cohen
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Center for Information and Neural Networks (CiNet), National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT), Osaka, Japan
| | - Bruno van Swinderen
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Naotsugu Tsuchiya
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Center for Information and Neural Networks (CiNet), National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT), Osaka, Japan
- Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience (MICCN), Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Advanced Telecommunications Research Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, Kyoto, Japan
- * E-mail: (AL); (NT)
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11
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Cardoso SSS, Cartwright JHE, Checa AG, Escribano B, Osuna-Mascaró AJ, Sainz-Díaz CI. The bee Tetragonula builds its comb like a crystal. J R Soc Interface 2020; 17:20200187. [PMID: 32693749 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Stingless bees of the genus Tetragonula construct a brood comb with a spiral or a target pattern architecture in three dimensions. Crystals possess these same patterns on the molecular scale. Here, we show that the same excitable-medium dynamics governs both crystal nucleation and growth and comb construction in Tetragonula, so that a minimal coupled-map lattice model based on crystal growth explains how these bees produce the structures seen in their bee combs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvana S S Cardoso
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, UK
| | - Julyan H E Cartwright
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC-Universidad de Granada, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain.,Instituto Carlos I de Física Teórica y Computacional, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Antonio G Checa
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC-Universidad de Granada, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain.,Departamento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Bruno Escribano
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC-Universidad de Granada, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | | | - C Ignacio Sainz-Díaz
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC-Universidad de Granada, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain
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12
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Perry CJ, Chittka L. How foresight might support the behavioral flexibility of arthropods. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2018; 54:171-177. [PMID: 30445344 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 10/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The small brains of insects and other invertebrates are often thought to constrain these animals to live entirely 'in the moment'. In this view, each one of their many seemingly hard-wired behavioral routines is triggered by a precisely defined environmental stimulus configuration, but there is no mental appreciation of the possible outcomes of one's actions, and therefore little flexibility. However, many studies show problem-solving behavior in various arthropod species that falls outside the range of fixed behavior routines. We propose that a basic form of foresight, the ability to predict the outcomes of one's own actions, is at the heart of such behavioral flexibility, and that the evolutionary roots of such outcome expectation are found in the need to disentangle sensory input that is predictable from self-generated motion versus input generated by changes in the outside world. Based on this, locusts, grasshoppers, dragonflies and flies seem to use internal models of the surrounding world to tailor their actions adaptively to predict the imminent future. Honeybees and orb-weaving spiders appear to act towards a desired outcome of their respective constructions, and the genetically pre-programmed routines that govern these constructions are subordinate to achieving the desired goal. Jumping spiders seem to preplan their route to prey suggesting they recognize the spatial challenge and actions necessary to obtain prey. Bumblebees and ants utilize objects not encountered in the wild as types of tools to solve problems in a manner that suggests an awareness of the desired outcome. Here we speculate that it may be simpler, in terms of the required evolutionary changes, computation and neural architecture, for arthropods to recognize their goal and predict the outcomes of their actions towards that goal, rather than having a large number of pre-programmed behaviors necessary to account for their observed behavioral flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clint J Perry
- Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
| | - Lars Chittka
- Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK; Wissenschaftskolleg/Institute for Advanced Study, Wallotstrasse 19, 14193 Berlin, Germany
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