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Ciardo F, De Tommaso D, Wykowska A. Human-like behavioral variability blurs the distinction between a human and a machine in a nonverbal Turing test. Sci Robot 2022; 7:eabo1241. [PMID: 35895925 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abo1241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Variability is a property of biological systems, and in animals (including humans), behavioral variability is characterized by certain features, such as the range of variability and the shape of its distribution. Nevertheless, only a few studies have investigated whether and how variability features contribute to the ascription of humanness to robots in a human-robot interaction setting. Here, we tested whether two aspects of behavioral variability, namely, the standard deviation and the shape of distribution of reaction times, affect the ascription of humanness to robots during a joint action scenario. We designed an interactive task in which pairs of participants performed a joint Simon task with an iCub robot placed by their side. Either iCub could perform the task in a preprogrammed manner, or its button presses could be teleoperated by the other member of the pair, seated in the other room. Under the preprogrammed condition, the iCub pressed buttons with reaction times falling within the range of human variability. However, the distribution of the reaction times did not resemble a human-like shape. Participants were sensitive to humanness, because they correctly detected the human agent above chance level. When the iCub was controlled by the computer program, it passed our variation of a nonverbal Turing test. Together, our results suggest that hints of humanness, such as the range of behavioral variability, might be used by observers to ascribe humanness to a humanoid robot.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Ciardo
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
| | - D De Tommaso
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
| | - A Wykowska
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
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Camilleri A, Dogramadzi S, Caleb-Solly P. A Study on the Effects of Cognitive Overloading and Distractions on Human Movement During Robot-Assisted Dressing. Front Robot AI 2022; 9:815871. [PMID: 35592682 PMCID: PMC9111015 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2022.815871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
For robots that can provide physical assistance, maintaining synchronicity of the robot and human movement is a precursor for interaction safety. Existing research on collaborative HRI does not consider how synchronicity can be affected if humans are subjected to cognitive overloading and distractions during close physical interaction. Cognitive neuroscience has shown that unexpected events during interactions not only affect action cognition but also human motor control Gentsch et al. (Cognition, 2016, 146, 81–89). If the robot is to safely adapt its trajectory to distracted human motion, quantitative changes in the human movement should be evaluated. The main contribution of this study is the analysis and quantification of disrupted human movement during a physical collaborative task that involves robot-assisted dressing. Quantifying disrupted movement is the first step in maintaining the synchronicity of the human-robot interaction. The human movement data collected from a series of experiments where participants are subjected to cognitive loading and distractions during the human-robot interaction, are projected in a 2-D latent space that efficiently represents the high-dimensionality and non-linearity of the data. The quantitative data analysis is supported by a qualitative study of user experience, using the NASA Task Load Index to measure perceived workload, and the PeRDITA questionnaire to represent the human psychological state during these interactions. In addition, we present an experimental methodology to collect interaction data in this type of human-robot collaboration that provides realism, experimental rigour and high fidelity of the human-robot interaction in the scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Camilleri
- Bristol Robotics Laboratory, University of The West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Antonella Camilleri,
| | - Sanja Dogramadzi
- Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Praminda Caleb-Solly
- School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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ERP markers of action planning and outcome monitoring in human - robot interaction. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 212:103216. [PMID: 33285360 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to examine event-related potentials (ERPs) of action planning and outcome monitoring in human-robot interaction. To this end, participants were instructed to perform costly actions (i.e. losing points) to stop a balloon from inflating and to prevent its explosion. They performed the task alone (individual condition) or with a robot (joint condition). Similar to findings from human-human interactions, results showed that action planning was affected by the presence of another agent, robot in this case. Specifically, the early readiness potential (eRP) amplitude was larger in the joint, than in the individual, condition. The presence of the robot affected also outcome perception and monitoring. Our results showed that the P1/N1 complex was suppressed in the joint, compared to the individual condition when the worst outcome was expected, suggesting that the presence of the robot affects attention allocation to negative outcomes of one's own actions. Similarly, results also showed that larger losses elicited smaller feedback-related negativity (FRN) in the joint than in the individual condition. Taken together, our results indicate that the social presence of a robot may influence the way we plan our actions and also the way we monitor their consequences. Implications of the study for the human-robot interaction field are discussed.
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Attribution of intentional agency towards robots reduces one’s own sense of agency. Cognition 2020; 194:104109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Iani C, Ciardo F, Panajoli S, Lugli L, Rubichi S. The role of the co-actor's response reachability in the joint Simon effect: remapping of working space by tool use. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2019; 85:521-532. [PMID: 31768627 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-019-01271-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Simon effect, that is the advantage of the spatial correspondence between stimulus and response locations when stimulus location is task irrelevant, occurs even when the task is performed by two participants, each performing a go/no-go task. This effect, known as the joint Simon effect, does not emerge when participants sit outside each other's peripersonal space, thus suggesting that the presence of an active confederate in peripersonal space might provide a reference for response coding. The present study investigated whether this finding is due to the distance separating the participants and/or to the distance separating each participant and the other agent's response. In two experiments, pairs of participants performed a social detection task sitting outside each other's arm reach, with response keys located close to the participants or outside arm reach. When the response key was located outside the participant's arm reach, he/she could reach it by means of a tool. In Experiment 1, by means of a tool, participants could reach their response key only, while in Experiment 2, they could reach also their co-agent's response key. The joint Simon effect did not emerge when participants could not reach the co-actor's response, while it emerged when they could potentially reach the other participant's response using the tool, but only when turn taking was required. These results may be taken as evidence that the possibility to reach and act upon the co-actor's response key may be at the bases of compatibility effects observed in joint action contexts requiring complementary responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Iani
- Department of Communication and Economics, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale A. Allegri 9, 42121, Reggio Emilia, Italy. .,Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, 41125, Modena, Italy.
| | - Francesca Ciardo
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction Unit, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Melen 83, 16152, Genoa, Italy
| | - Simone Panajoli
- Department of Communication and Economics, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale A. Allegri 9, 42121, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Luisa Lugli
- Department of Philosophy and Communication, University of Bologna, Via A. Gardino 23, 40122, Bologna, Italy
| | - Sandro Rubichi
- Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, 41125, Modena, Italy.,Department of Education and Human Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale A. Allegri 9, 42121, Reggio Emilia, Italy
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Zhao Z, Salesse RN, Qu X, Marin L, Gueugnon M, Bardy BG. Influence of perceived emotion and gender on social motor coordination. Br J Psychol 2019; 111:536-555. [PMID: 31435934 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Theorists have long postulated that facial properties such as emotion and sex are potent social stimuli that influence how individuals act. Yet extant scientific findings were mainly derived from investigations on the prompt motor response upon the presentation of affective stimuli, which were mostly delivered by means of pictures, videos, or text. A theoretical question remains unaddressed concerning how the perception of emotion and sex would modulate the dynamics of a continuous coordinated behaviour. Conceived in the framework of dynamical approach to interpersonal motor coordination, the present study aimed to address this question by adopting the coupled-oscillators paradigm. Twenty-one participants performed in-phase and anti-phase coordination with two avatars (male and female) displaying three emotional expressions (neutral, happy, and angry) at different frequencies (100% and 150% of the participant's preferred frequency) by executing horizontal rhythmic left-right oscillatory movements. Time to initiate movement (TIM), mean relative phase error (MnRP), and standard deviation of relative phase (SDRP) were calculated as indices of reaction time, deviation from the intended pattern of coordination, and coordination stability, respectively. Results showed that in anti-phase condition at 150% frequency, MnRP was lower with the angry and the female avatar. In addition, coordination was found to be more stable with the male avatar than the female one when both displaying neutral emotion. But the happy female avatar was found to elicit more stable coordination than the neutral female avatar. These results implied that individuals are more relaxed to coordinate with the female than the male, and the sensorimotor system becomes more flexible to coordinate with an angry person. It is also suggested social roles influence how people coordinate, and individuals attend more to interact with a happy female. In sum, the present study evidenced that social perception is embodied in the interactive behaviour during social interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong Zhao
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, China
| | | | - Xingda Qu
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, China
| | | | | | - Benoît G Bardy
- EuroMov, University of Montpellier, France.,Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
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Individual Differences in Attitude Toward Robots Predict Behavior in Human-Robot Interaction. SOCIAL ROBOTICS 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-35888-4_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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