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Kuhn G, Ortega J, Simmons K, Thomas C, Mohr C. EXPRESS: Experiencing misinformation: The effect of pre-exposure warnings and debunking on psychic beliefs. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2022; 76:1445-1456. [PMID: 35848541 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221116437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Misinformation can have a detrimental impact on our beliefs, and it is therefore necessary to understand the cognitive mechanism by which false information is integrated or can be changed. In two experiments, we worked with fake psychic demonstrations, because observers easily adopt the experience as reflecting a « true » psychic event. We manipulated the availability of alternative explanations by providing a general warning that the performer is a magician with no psychic abilities (Experiment 1), or disclosing afterwards how the fake demonstration had been staged (Experiment 2). In experiment 1, witnessing the psychic demonstration significantly increased participants' psychic beliefs, even though they had been warned. However, providing the alternative explanation about the deceptive method mitigated this effect. In experiment 2, the realization of deception significantly reduced participants' psychic beliefs directly after the performance, and remained reduced at the one week later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustav Kuhn
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
| | - Jeniffer Ortega
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad El Bosque, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Keir Simmons
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
| | - Cyril Thomas
- Université de Paris, LAPEA, Boulogne-Billancourt, France
- LAPEA, Université Gustave Eiffel, IFSTTAR, Versailles, France
| | - Christine Mohr
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Pailhès A, Lee K, Kuhn G. Too perfect to be good? An investigation of magicians' Too Perfect Theory. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13449. [PMID: 35663521 PMCID: PMC9161811 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The "Too Perfect Theory" states that if a trick is too perfect, it might paradoxically become less impressive, or give away its secret method. This theory suggests that an increased impossibility results in a less magical effect. The Too Perfect Theory is often applied to magic effects, but it conflicts with recent scientific investigations showing that participants' level of enjoyment of a magic performance is positively related to their perceived impossibility of the trick. The current article investigated whether an imperfect magic performance is more impressive than a perfect one. Across two experiments, we studied whether participants enjoy a performance more if the effect is not perfect. We also examined the different types of explanations people give to these two types of performances. The results showed that participants enjoyed a perfect performance more than an imperfect one. However, consistently with the Too Perfect Theory, participants watching the perfect performance also discovered the correct method behind the magic trick more frequently and believed the performance was staged more often. Moreover, participants' method explanation significantly impacted their reports about the performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Pailhès
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kole Lee
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gustav Kuhn
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Gronchi G, Zemla JC. Cognitive style predicts how people explain mental magic tricks. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2021; 218:103347. [PMID: 34082379 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Magic tricks are deceiving, yet we can readily generate an explanation for a trick that we do not fully understand. In three experiments, we show that the way people explain a mental magic trick depends on their individual cognitive style. Analytical thinkers tend to generate explanations that appeal to rationality, such as using physical props to accomplish an effect. In contrast, intuitive thinkers are more likely to generate irrational explanations that accord with the magician's provided backstory, such as using subliminal cues to guide a spectator's choices. We observe this effect when measuring a participant's cognitive style using the Cognitive Reflection Test, and also when manipulating a participant's cognitive style using a simple narrative prompt.
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Applying insights from magic to improve deception in research: The Swiss cheese model. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Olson JA, Lifshitz M, Raz A, Veissière SPL. Super Placebos: A Feasibility Study Combining Contextual Factors to Promote Placebo Effects. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:644825. [PMID: 33746801 PMCID: PMC7970115 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.644825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Ample evidence demonstrates that placebo effects are modulated by contextual factors. Few interventions, however, attempt to combine a broad range of these factors. Here, we explore the therapeutic power of placebos by leveraging factors including social proof, positive suggestion, and social learning. This study aimed to test the feasibility of an elaborate "super placebo" intervention to reduce symptoms of various disorders in a pediatric population. Methods: In a single-arm qualitative study, participants entered an inactive MRI scanner which they were told could help their brain heal itself through the power of suggestion. The sample included 11 children (6-13 years old) diagnosed with disorders known to be receptive to placebos and suggestion (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Tourette Syndrome, chronic skin picking, and migraines). The children were given positive suggestions during 2-4 placebo machine sessions over the span of approximately 1 month. We assessed open-ended treatment outcomes via recorded interviews and home visits. Results: The procedure was feasible and no adverse events occurred. Ten of the 11 parents reported improvements in their children after the intervention, ranging from minor transient changes to long-term reductions in subjective and objective symptoms (e.g., migraines and skin lesions). Discussion: These preliminary findings demonstrate the feasibility and promise of combining a broad range of contextual factors in placebo studies. Future research is needed to assess the causal effects of such interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay A Olson
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Michael Lifshitz
- Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | - Amir Raz
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Chapman University, Irvine, CA, United States
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Lesaffre L, Kuhn G, Jopp DS, Mantzouranis G, Diouf CN, Rochat D, Mohr C. Talking to the Dead in the Classroom: How a Supposedly Psychic Event Impacts Beliefs and Feelings. Psychol Rep 2020; 124:2427-2452. [PMID: 33019882 DOI: 10.1177/0033294120961068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Paranormal beliefs (PBs) are common in adults. There are numerous psychological correlates of PBs and associated theories, yet, we do not know whether such correlates reinforce or result from PBs. To understand causality, we developed an experimental design in which participants experience supposedly paranormal events. Thus, we can test an event's impact on PBs and PB-associated correlates. Here, 419 naïve students saw a performer making contact with a confederate's deceased kin. We tested participants' opinions and feelings about this performance, and whether these predicted how participants explain the performance. We assessed participants' PBs and repetition avoidance (PB related cognitive correlate) before and after the performance. Afterwards, participants rated explanations of the event and described their opinions and feelings (open-ended question). Overall, 65% of participants reported having witnessed a genuine paranormal event. The open-ended question revealed distinct opinion and affect groups, with reactions commonly characterized by doubt and mixed feelings. Importantly, paranormal explanations were more likely when participants reported their feelings than when not reported. Beyond these results, we replicated that 1) higher pre-existing PBs were associated with more psychic explanations (confirmation bias), and 2) PBs and repetition avoidance did not change from before to after the performance. Yet, PBs reminiscent of the actual performance (spiritualism) increased. Results showed that young adults easily endorse PBs and paranormal explanations for events, and that their affective reactions matter. Future studies should use participants' subjective experiences to target PBs in causal designs (e.g., adding control conditions).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lise Lesaffre
- Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.,Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gustav Kuhn
- Psychology Department, Goldsmiths University of London, UK.,Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniela S Jopp
- Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland; Swiss Centre of Competence in Research LIVES "Overcoming Vulnerability: Life Course Perspectives", Switzerland.,Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gregory Mantzouranis
- Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland; Unit of the University Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (SUPEA), CHUV, Switzerland.,Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Cécile Ndéyane Diouf
- Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.,Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Déborah Rochat
- Psychology Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Fribourg, Switzerland.,Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Christine Mohr
- Institute of Psychology, Social and Political Sciences, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
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Wiseman R, Watt C. Conjuring cognition: a review of educational magic-based interventions. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8747. [PMID: 32195059 PMCID: PMC7067183 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
For hundreds of years, magic tricks have been employed within a variety of pedagogic contexts, including promoting science and mathematics, delivering educational messaging, enhancing scepticism about the paranormal, and boosting creative thinking for product design. This review examines this diverse body of work, focusing on studies that have assessed the impact of such interventions. Although the studies tended to yield positive outcomes, much of the work suffered from methodological shortcomings, including measuring the impact of interventions over a relatively short period of time, focusing on self-report measures and failing to employ control groups. The paper makes several recommendations for future study in the area, including assessing the longer-term impact of magic-based interventions, comparing these interventions to other types of pedagogic techniques, focussing on knowledge retention and behavioural outcomes, and collaborating with magicians to develop more impactful interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Wiseman
- School of Psychology and Sport Science, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Watt
- School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, United Kingdom
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Fake science: The impact of pseudo-psychological demonstrations on people's beliefs in psychological principles. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207629. [PMID: 30481220 PMCID: PMC6258475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Magicians use deception to create effects that allow us to experience the impossible. More recently, magicians have started to contextualize these tricks in psychological demonstrations. We investigated whether witnessing a magic demonstration alters people's beliefs in these pseudo-psychological principles. In the classroom, a magician claimed to use psychological skills to read a volunteer's thoughts. After this demonstration, participants reported higher beliefs that an individual can 1) read a person's mind by evaluating micro expressions, psychological profiles and muscle activities, and 2) effectively prime a person's behaviour through subtle suggestions. Whether he was presented as a magician or psychologist did not influence people's beliefs about how the demonstration was achieved, nor did it influence their beliefs in pseudo-psychological principles. Our results demonstrate that pseudo-psychological demonstrations can have a significant impact on perpetuating false beliefs in scientific principles and raise important questions about the wider impact of scientific misinformation.
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