Tracking and Comparing Self-Determined Motivation in Elite Youth Soccer: Influence of Developmental Activities, Age, and Skill

The road to excellence in women's football: a retrospective cohort study over the last 30 years with Swiss national players

OBJECTIVES

This study examines the training (age at club entry, hours in club practice, free play, other sports) and environmental characteristics (popularity, media coverage, school and parental support) influencing the development of female Swiss national team players in elite football over a three-decade period.

METHODS

A retrospective questionnaire was completed by 84 participants, who were divided into three cohorts based on their first game with the Swiss national team (C1 = until 2000, n = 24; C2 = 2001-2010, n = 29; C3 = 2011-2022, n = 31). ANOVAs were employed to compare the cohorts regarding training and environmental variables.

RESULTS

The findings demonstrate better perceived environmental conditions, stagnating volume of free play and other sports in childhood, decreasing age at club entry, and increasing club practice and total training volume across cohorts.

CONCLUSION

Practical implications highlight talent development avenues in unstructured settings during free time and in the micro-structure of club practice.

Motivation among Teenage Football Players: A Longitudinal Investigation throughout a Competitive Season

The present study aimed to investigate the dynamic changes in behavioral regulations among teenage football players throughout a competitive season, with three measurement points (T1, T2, and T3). The total sample size for the study comprised 108 participants (78 male; 30 female). The participants' mean age was 14.31 (SD = 1.48). A MANOVA repeated measures analysis was performed within the group for all six behavioral regulations based on self-determination theory. The results of the study revealed noteworthy patterns in the behavioral regulations and intrinsic motivation scores over the competitive season. Identified regulation demonstrated a significant increase from T1 to T3 (p < 0.01, η2p = 0.13). Intrinsic motivation displayed a significant decrease over the same period from T1 to T3 (p < 0.01, η2p = 0.12). On the other hand, amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, and integrated regulation did not show significant changes between the three time points. The findings have practical implications for coaches and sports practitioners, as they highlight the need to create a supportive and autonomy-promoting environment to sustain athletes' intrinsic motivation throughout a competitive season. Also, recognizing the increase in identified regulation can inform strategies that align team goals and training sessions with players' individual values, thereby enhancing their commitment and dedication to the team's success.

Participation patterns in talent development in youth sports

There has been a longstanding debate about the question: What amounts of what types of youth sport activities optimally facilitate later athletic excellence? This article provides a review of relevant research. We first evaluate popular conceptualizations of participation patterns-early specialization, deliberate practice, and deliberate play. Then, we review the available evidence on associations between performance and individual participation variables. The review reveals conceptual, definitional, and empirical flaws of the conceptions of early specialization, deliberate practice, and deliberate play. These approaches thus possess limited usefulness for empirical research. A review of studies considering individual, clearly defined participation variables provides a differentiated pattern of findings: Predictors of rapid junior performance and of long-term senior performance are opposite. Higher-performing juniors, compared to lower-performing peers, started playing their main sport, began involvement in talent promotion programs, and reached developmental performance milestones at younger ages, while accumulating larger amounts of coach-led main-sport practice, but less other-sports practice. In contrast, senior world-class athletes, compared to less-accomplished national-class peers, started playing their main sport, began involvement in talent promotion programs, and achieved performance milestones at older ages, while accumulating less coach-led main-sport practice, but more other-sports practice. We discuss implications for theory, practice, and future research.

The Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Coping Ability in Senior Female Field-Hockey Players in South Africa

Research has suggested that coping under pressure could be rooted in the ability to identify and manage one's emotions. In this study, we investigated this hypothesis using cross-sectional data obtained from a sample of South African national and university level female field-hockey players (N = 60, Mage = 21.57, SD = 3.65). A correlational research design was adopted of which a pen-and-paper survey containing the Emotional Intelligence Scale and Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 was used to collect the data. Descriptive results exposed players to yield higher than average levels of total emotional intelligence and coping ability in sport with significant differences noted between the national and university level players in terms of their ability to manage their own emotions (p = 0.018), utilise emotions (p = 0.007, d = 0.74), coping with adversity (p = 0.002, d = 0.84), coachability (p < 0.01, d = 3.17), and overall coping ability (p < 0.01, d = 1.00). After controlling for the level of participation, hierarchical linear regression analyses confirmed the relationship between the study variables exposing total emotional intelligence to be a significant predictor of players' ability to cope with adversity (β = 0.55, p = 0.006), concentrate (β = 0.43, p = 0.044), maintain confidence and achievement motivation (β = 0.42, p = 0.027), as well as overall coping ability (β = 0.28, p = 0.023). It was concluded that emotional intelligence may be a worthy contributor in the psychological profiling of players and a plausible intervention mapping tool in sport psychology practice to potentially enhance the coping ability of female field-hockey players.

A scoping review on developmental activities of girls' and women's sports

We provide a scoping review of research on athlete development in girls' and women's sports. Our emphasis is on pathways to expertise in the context of deliberate practice theory and associated models, such as the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP). Despite rationale for sex and gender differences in sport development, there are relatively few studies where the developmental pathways of female elite athletes have been evaluated. We sought to map the scope of the literature on this population over the last 30 years, focusing on measures of practice types and amounts. Following an extensive search of the literature, 32 studies were identified that included all female participants or presented sex/gender disaggregated data. Retrospective methods were commonly used to quantify practice, play and specialization. National-level athletes were the most represented, although there was considerable heterogeneity in sport and expertise-level, making general or comparative judgements challenging. We identified some groups that had accumulated high volumes of practice at a young age, particularly in soccer and gymnastics. Across sports and studies, early majority hours of engagement in the primary sport was the norm. Athletes deviated from predictions in the specialization pathway detailed in the DMSP, by continuing to participate in other sports throughout childhood and adolescence. In addition to highlighting the relative paucity of data pertaining to athlete development pathways in female athletes, we show that the data from these groups deviate from predictions detailed in current models of athlete development.

Just Do It: High Intensity Physical Activity Preserves Mental and Physical Health in Elite and Non-elite Athletes During COVID-19

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic forced most Italian athletes to cease their regular training activities, with possible consequences on both mental and physical health. The present study aimed at assessing changes in Physical Activity (PA) from pre- to lockdown, and examining the relationships among lockdown PA, quality of life (mental and physical health), motivation to exercise, psychological distress, intolerance of uncertainty, and body dissatisfaction. Methods: A total of 204 athletes of different sports (91 elite; 110 females; mean age = 22.55, SD = 5.76) answered an online survey investigating demographics, sport-related questions, PA (IPAQ-S), quality of life (SF-12), and psychological variables (BREQ-2, DASS-21, IUS-R, and EDI-3-Body dissatisfaction subscale). Results: Both elite and non-elite athletes significantly reduced their PA intensity and volume (p < 0.001). Elite athletes did not differ from non-elite in terms of total PA intensity and hours of training during lockdown (p > 0.05). Elite and individual athletes showed higher intrinsic motivation to exercise compared to non-elite and team sports (p < 0.01). Female athletes displayed higher distress, worse mental health, and higher body dissatisfaction than males (p < 0.05). Mediation models showed that vigorous PA positively affected both mental (p < 0.05) and physical (p < 0.001) health during lockdown, independently of distress and intolerance of uncertainty. Conclusion: The COVID-19 lockdown was taxing for athletes, particularly professionals; those who were able to practice PA at high intensity during lockdown reported better mental and physical health.

Empirical Support for the Tenets of Sport Participation and Physical Activity-Based Models: A Scoping Review

Notwithstanding their wide-spread use, it is unclear what level of empirical evidence exists to support sport participation and physical activity-based models. Sport participation and physical activity-based models characterize different stages of sport involvement based on sport activities (organized and unorganized) individuals take part in throughout their lifespan. The objectives of this scoping review was to explore the nature of empirical support for tenets of sport participation and physical activity-based models describing the evolution of an individuals' sport participation. Seventeen different sport participation models were identified through an iterative literature review, using a snowball search strategy and expert (n = 8) consultation. Of the identified models, three described the evolution of an individual's sport participation based on their participation in different activities at various stages of sport involvement and were retained for the review. A second literature review identified peer-reviewed publications supporting at least one tenet of these three models. Many tenets of retained models received some empirical support from some of the 38 publications identified, but some tenets were not tested. Most of the evidence supporting tenets originated from studies among elite-level athletes. Whereas some evidence exists to support current sport participation and physical activity models, more research is warranted, particularly among the general population of non-elite athletes, for the models to be used in full confidence to guide sport policies, programs, and practices.

A multidisciplinary investigation into "playing-up" in academy football according to age phase

In an attempt to facilitate more appropriate levels of challenge, a common practice in academy football is to play-up talented youth players with chronologically older peers. However, the context of playing-up in academy football is yet to be empirically explored. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the multidimensional factors that differentiated players who play-up from those who do not. Ninety-eight participants from a single football academy were examined within their age phase: Foundation Development Phase (FDP; under-9 to under-11; n = 40) and Youth Development Phase (YDP; under-12 to under-16; n = 58). Drawing upon the FA Four Corner Model, 27 factors relating to Technical/Tactical, Physical, Psychological, and Social development were assessed. Following MANOVA analysis within both the FDP and YDP, significant differences were observed for Technical/Tactical and Social sub-components (P < 0.05). Further differences were observed for Physical and Psychological sub-components (P < 0.05) within the YDP. In sum, Technical/Tactical and Social characteristics appeared to differentiate those who play-up compared to those who do not within the FDP. In the YDP however, there were measures representing all sub-components from the FA Four Corner Model. Subsequently, it is suggested coaches and practitioners consider these holistic factors when playing-up youth football players within relevant age-phases.