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Alvarez-Martinez A, Sampedro-Vizcaya MJ, Fernandez-Rey J. Examining the effects of pleasantness ratings on correct and false recognition in the DRM paradigm: accuracy, recollection and familiarity estimates. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1265291. [PMID: 38572205 PMCID: PMC10988982 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1265291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Distinctive encoding usually increases correct recognition while also producing a reduction in false recognition. In the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) illusion this phenomenon, called the mirror effect, occurs when participants focus on unique features of each of the words in the study list. In previous studies, the pleasantness rating task, used to foster distinctive encoding, generated different patterns of results. The main aim of our research is to examine under what circumstances this task can produce the mirror effect in the DRM paradigm, based on evidence from recognition accuracy and subjective retrieval experience. In Experiment 1, a standard version (word pleasantness rating on a 5-point Likert-type scale) was used for comparison with two other encoding conditions: shallow processing (vowel identification) and a read-only control. The standard task, compared to the other conditions, increased correct recognition, but did not reduce false recognition, and this result may be affected by the number of lists presented for study. Therefore, in experiment 2, to minimize the possible effect of the so-called retention size, the number of studied lists was reduced. In addition, the standard version was compared with a supposedly more item-specific version (participants rated the pleasantness of words while thinking of a single reason for this), also including the read-only control condition. In both versions of the pleasantness rating task, more correct recognition is achieved compared to the control condition, with no differences between the two versions. In the false recognition observed here, only the specific pleasantness rating task achieved a reduction relative to the control condition. On the other hand, the subjective retrieval experience accompanied correct and false recognition in the various study conditions. Although the standard pleasantness rating task has been considered to perform item-specific processing, our results challenge that claim. Furthermore, we propose a possible boundary condition of the standard task for the reduction of false recognition in the DRM paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Alvarez-Martinez
- Department of Basic Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology of Behavioral Science, Faculty of Psychology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Maria J. Sampedro-Vizcaya
- Department of Social Psychology, Basic Psychology, and Methodology, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Jose Fernandez-Rey
- Cognitive Processes and Behavior Research Group, Department of Social Psychology, Basic Psychology, and Methodology, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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Kafkas A, Brown T, Olusola N, Guo C. Pupil response patterns distinguish true from false memories. Sci Rep 2023; 13:17244. [PMID: 37821524 PMCID: PMC10567773 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44362-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Memory is reconstructive and error-prone, which make memory illusions very common in everyday life. However, studying memory illusions can provide valuable insights into how memory works. Pupil response has emerged, in recent years, as an indicator of memory encoding and retrieval, however its validity as a measure of memory success is debated. In this study, we explored whether pupil response patterns can differentiate true from false memories and whether variations in the temporal dynamics of pupil response can elucidate the mechanisms underlying false memory creation. The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm was employed to generate false memories in two separate experiments involving visual and auditory stimuli. Pupil responses effectively differentiated true from false memories based on variations in pupil amplitude at different temporal components. This discrimination remained consistent across both experiments, with slightly stronger effects in the auditory condition, aligning with the more pronounced false memory effects in this condition. Notably, differential pupil responses between true and false memories varied based on the type of memory involved at recognition. These findings provide valuable insights into the cognitive processes underlying memory distortions, with implications for theoretical frameworks and real-world contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Kafkas
- School of Health Sciences, Division of Psychology, Communication and Human Neuroscience, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.
| | - Travorn Brown
- School of Health Sciences, Division of Psychology, Communication and Human Neuroscience, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Nifemi Olusola
- School of Health Sciences, Division of Psychology, Communication and Human Neuroscience, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Chaodong Guo
- School of Health Sciences, Division of Psychology, Communication and Human Neuroscience, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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Suarez M, Beato MS. False memory in a second language: The importance of controlling the knowledge of word meaning. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0285747. [PMID: 37167247 PMCID: PMC10174556 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In the globalized world we live in, it is increasingly common for people to speak more than one language. Although research in psychology has been widely interested in the study of false memories with the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, to date, there is a scarcity of studies comparing false memories in the first and the second language (L1 and L2, respectively). It is noteworthy that one of the most studied variables in the DRM paradigm, the backward associative strength (BAS), has hardly been studied in the L2. Moreover, the only study that recently examined this matter found differences in the knowledge of L2-word meaning between the high-BAS and low-BAS lists, which would hinder the interpretation of the BAS effect in L2 false memories. Taking all this into account, the current work examined false memories in the L1 (Spanish) and the L2 (English) as a function of BAS overcoming the limitations of the previous study. We selected DRM lists using both Spanish and English free association norms and lists were constructed to vary in BAS values while controlling the knowledge of word meaning. Results showed that false recognition was greater in the L1 or dominant language than in the L2 or non-dominant language. Furthermore, BAS modulated the false recognition in both the L1 and the L2. That is, false recognition was higher in high-BAS than low-BAS lists in both languages. Sensitivity index from the signal-detection theory helped us gain further insight into these results. The main findings are discussed in the light of theoretical models from both the false memory and the second language processing literature. Finally, practical implications and future research are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mar Suarez
- Department of Basic Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Psychology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Maria Soledad Beato
- Department of Basic Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology of Behavioral Sciences, Faculty of Psychology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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Robin F, De Bont L. Mental images and false memories: the classical cognitive approach vs. embodied cognition. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-04210-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Huff MJ, Maxwell NP, Mitchell A. Distinctive Sans Forgetica font does not benefit memory accuracy in the DRM paradigm. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2022; 7:102. [PMID: 36484976 PMCID: PMC9733772 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-022-00448-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A common method used by memory scholars to enhance retention is to make materials more challenging to learn-a benefit termed desirable difficulties. Recently, researchers have investigated the efficacy of Sans Forgetica, a perceptually disfluent/distinctive font which may increase processing effort required at study and enhance memory as a result. We examined the effects of Sans Forgetica relative to a standard control font (Arial) on both correct memory and associative memory errors using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) false memory paradigm, to evaluate Sans Forgetica effects on overall memory accuracy. Across four experiments, which included nearly 300 participants, Sans Forgetica was found to have no impact on correct or false memory of DRM lists relative to a standard Arial control font, regardless of whether font type was manipulated within or between subjects or whether memory was assessed via free recall or recognition testing. Our results indicate that Sans Forgetica is ineffective for improving memory accuracy even when accounting for associative memory errors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Huff
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 USA
| | - Nicholas P. Maxwell
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 USA ,grid.260023.50000 0004 0484 8906Present Address: Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX USA
| | - Anie Mitchell
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Dr. #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 USA
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Cadavid S, Beato MS, Suarez M, Albuquerque PB. Feelings of Contrast at Test Reduce False Memory in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott Paradigm. Front Psychol 2021; 12:686390. [PMID: 34589019 PMCID: PMC8473749 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.686390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
False memories in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm are explained in terms of the interplay between error-inflating and error-editing (e.g., monitoring) mechanisms. In this study, we focused on disqualifying monitoring, a decision process that helps to reject false memories through the recollection of collateral information (i.e., recall-to-reject strategies). Participants engage in recall-to-reject strategies using one or two metacognitive processes: (1) applying the logic of mutual exclusivity or (2) experiencing feelings of contrast between studied items and unstudied lures. We aimed to provide, for the first time in the DRM literature, evidence favorable to the existence of a recall-to-reject strategy based on the experience of feelings of contrast. One hundred and forty participants studied six-word DRM lists (e.g., spy, hell, fist, fight, abduction, mortal), simultaneously associated with three critical lures (e.g., WAR, BAD, FEAR). Lists differed in their ease to identify their critical lures (extremely low-BAS lists vs. high-BAS lists). At recognition test, participants saw either one or the three critical lures of the lists. Participants in the three-critical-lure condition were expected to increase their monitoring, as they would experience stronger feelings of contrast than the participants in the one-critical-lure condition. Results supported our hypothesis, showing lower false recognition in the three-critical-lure condition than in the one-critical-lure condition. Critically, in the three-critical-lure condition, participants reduced even more false memory when they could also resort to another monitoring strategy (i.e., identify-to-reject). These findings suggest that, in the DRM context, disqualifying monitoring could be guided by experiencing feelings of contrast between different types of words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cadavid
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | - Mar Suarez
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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Beato MS, Arndt J. Questioning the Role of Forward Associative Strength in False Memories: Evidence From Deese-Roediger-McDermott Lists With Three Critical Lures. Front Psychol 2021; 12:724594. [PMID: 34589029 PMCID: PMC8473788 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We report an experiment examining the factors that produce false recognition in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. We selectively manipulated the probability that critical lures produce study items in free association, known as forward associative strength (FAS), while controlling the probability that study items produce critical lures in free association, known as backward associative strength (BAS). Results showed that false recognition of critical lures failed to differ between strong and weak FAS conditions. Follow-up correlational analyses further supported this outcome, showing that FAS was not correlated with false recognition, despite substantial variability in both variables across our stimulus sets. However, these correlational analyses did produce a significant and strong relationship between BAS and false recognition. These results support views that propose false memory is produced by activation spreading from study items to critical lures during encoding, which leads critical lures to be confused with episodically-experienced events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason Arndt
- Department of Psychology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT, United States
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Maraver MJ, Lapa A, Garcia-Marques L, Carneiro P, Raposo A. Imagination Reduces False Memories for Everyday Action Sentences: Evidence From Pragmatic Inferences. Front Psychol 2021; 12:668899. [PMID: 34489789 PMCID: PMC8417559 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Human memory can be unreliable, and when reading a sentence with a pragmatic implication, such as "the karate champion hit the cinder block," people often falsely remember that the karate champion "broke" the cinder block. Yet, research has shown that encoding instructions affect the false memories we form. On the one hand, instructing participants to imagine themselves manipulating the to-be-recalled items increase false memories (imagination inflation effect). But on the other hand, instructions to imagine have reduced false memories in the DRM paradigm (imagination facilitation effect). Here, we explored the effect of imaginal encoding with pragmatic inferences, a way to study false memories for information about everyday actions. Across two experiments, we manipulated imaginal encoding through the instructions given to participants and the after-item filler task (none vs. math operations). In Experiment 1, participants were either assigned to the encoding condition of imagine+no filler; pay attention+math; or memorize+math. In Experiment 2, the encoding instructions (imagine vs. memorize) and the filler task (none vs. math) were compared across four separate conditions. Results from the two experiments showed that imagination instructions lead to better memory, by showing a higher proportion of correct responses and better performance in a memory benefit index. Similarly, a significant reduction of false memories was observed across both experiments, even though a complementary Bayesian analysis only supported this conclusion for Experiment 1. The findings show that imaginal encoding improves memory, suggesting the engagement of a distinctiveness heuristic and source-monitoring process.
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Affiliation(s)
- María J. Maraver
- CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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Suarez M, Beato MS. The Role of Language Proficiency in False Memory: A Mini Review. Front Psychol 2021; 12:659434. [PMID: 33897568 PMCID: PMC8062730 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.659434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory errors and, specifically, false memories in the Deese/Roediger–McDermott paradigm have been extensively studied in the past decades. Most studies have investigated false memory in monolinguals’ native or first language (L1), but interest has also grown in examining false memories in participants’ second language (L2) with different proficiency levels. The main purpose of this manuscript is to review the current state of knowledge on the role of language proficiency on false memories when participants encode and retrieve information in the same language. To do so, a systematic literature search was conducted, and the available studies were reviewed. These studies differed in, for example, age, language proficiency, or material characteristics, including both high and low associative strength lists, and they reported different results. In this review, we attempted to make sense of the apparently contradictory results by carefully identifying participants’ language dominance and L2 proficiency. Specifically, the results indicated that, first, people are more prone to produce false memories in their dominant than in their non-dominant language. This result generalizes to lists with high and low associative strength, as well as to participants of different ages. Second, false memories do not differ between two languages when speakers are equally proficient in both languages. Finally, highly proficient L2 speakers produce more false memories in their L2 than speakers with lower L2 proficiency. The results of this review will be considered in the light of the theoretical frameworks of false memories and bilingual language processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mar Suarez
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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