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Yang Y, Chen N, Kobayashi M, Watanabe K. Color-taste correspondence tested by the Stroop task. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1250781. [PMID: 38328377 PMCID: PMC10847320 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1250781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
People consistently associate colors with tastes (e.g., pink-sweet, yellow-sour). However, little has been known on the strength of those color-taste correspondences. The current study examined the congruency effect of color-taste correspondence using two Stroop word categorization tasks. The visual stimuli consisted of food names associated with sweet and sour tastes, presented in different shades of pink and yellow font colors. Participants were instructed to categorize the taste (sweet or sour) of the words in the Stroop word-taste categorization task and to discriminate the font color (pink or yellow) of the words in the Stroop word-color discrimination task. Results showed that participants responded faster in congruent conditions (sweet-pink and sour-yellow) than incongruent conditions (sweet-yellow and sour-pink) in both tasks. Specifically, yellow font colors facilitated the categorization of sour taste words compared to pink font colors, whereas sweet taste words facilitated the discrimination of pink font colors compared to sour taste words. These results provide further evidence for the congruency effect of color-taste correspondence in facilitating the processing of taste-related words and colors. Furthermore, the congruency effect was shown to operate bidirectionally, influencing both the conceptual meaning of tastes and perceptual color perception. This study highlights the significant interference effect of color-taste correspondence on cognitive processing as assessed by the Stroop task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yidie Yang
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Na Chen
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Maiko Kobayashi
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
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Meng X, Chen N, Ishida J, Watanabe K, Murakami T. Crossmodal correspondences between visual features and tastes in preschoolers: an exploratory study. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1226661. [PMID: 37645068 PMCID: PMC10461477 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1226661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Adults possess a natural inclination to associate sensory cues derived from distinct modalities, such as the pairing of sweet with pink. However, studies exploring crossmodal correspondences in children, particularly in the sensory pairing of visual features and tastes, are scant, leaving unanswered questions regarding the developmental trajectory of crossmodal correspondences. The present study investigates whether Japanese preschool children demonstrate specific biases in shape-color, shape-taste, and color-taste associations. Methods In a series of in-person experiments, 92 children between 3 to 6 years of age completed matching tasks utilizing paper stimuli. Results Children exhibit crossmodal correspondences in shape-color (circle-red and asymmetrical star-yellow), shape-taste (triangle-salty and circle-sweet), and color-taste (yellow-sour, black-bitter, and pink-sweet) associations. Moreover, children's choices are not influenced by their individual preferences. Discussion The crossmodal correspondences observed in this study have been observed in previous research on adults from the same (Japanese) culture, although adults showed more crossmodal correspondences than the children in this study (e.g., pink-circle, triangle-sour, and green-bitter). Thus, while some crossmodal correspondences emerge during childhood, others may require additional time to develop, thereby highlighting the importance of understanding the cognitive mechanisms underlying crossmodal correspondences from an ontogenic perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianwei Meng
- Graduate School of Informatics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Na Chen
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Junya Ishida
- Faculty of Education and Care of Early Childhood, Tokoha University, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Taro Murakami
- Faculty of Education and Care of Early Childhood, Tokoha University, Shizuoka, Japan
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Chen N, Watanabe K, Spence C, Wada M. People with higher autistic traits show stronger binding for color-shape associations. Sci Rep 2023; 13:9611. [PMID: 37311776 PMCID: PMC10264394 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-36666-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-synesthetes exhibit a tendency to associate specific shapes with particular colors (i.e., circle-red, triangle-yellow, and square-blue). Such color-shape associations (CSAs) could potentially affect the feature binding of colors and shapes, thus resulting in people reporting more binding errors in the case of incongruent, rather than congruent, colored-shape pairs. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit atypical sensory processing and impaired multisensory integration. Here, we examined whether autistic traits (Autism-Spectrum Quotient; AQ) influence the strength of color-shape associations, as evidenced by the occurrence of binding errors in incongruent minus congruent conditions. Participants took part in an experiment designed to reveal binding errors induced by incongruent and congruent colored-shape pairs, and completed the Japanese version of the AQ score. The results revealed a significant correlation between AQ scores and occurrence of binding errors when participants were presented with the circle-red and triangle-yellow CSAs: That is, individuals with higher autistic traits tend to make more binding errors in incongruent minus congruent colored-shape pairs, indicating a stronger binding of circle-red and triangle-yellow associations. These results therefore suggest that autistic traits play a role in forming color-shape associations, shedding light on the nature of both color-shape associations and autistic perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation for Brain Functions, Research Institute of National Rehabilitation Center for Persons With Disabilities, Tokorozawa, 359-8555, Japan.
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, 5290002, Israel.
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, 169-8555, Japan
| | - Charles Spence
- Crossmodal Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX2 6GG, UK
| | - Makoto Wada
- Department of Rehabilitation for Brain Functions, Research Institute of National Rehabilitation Center for Persons With Disabilities, Tokorozawa, 359-8555, Japan
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Reasons for Adding Different Tastes: An Example of Sprinkling Salt on Watermelon and Its Relation to Subjective Taste Perception, Taste Preference, and Autistic Traits. J FOOD QUALITY 2023. [DOI: 10.1155/2023/9945339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Each basic taste can be perceived differently due to stored knowledge and differences in receptor properties. Depending on how these tastes are perceived, eating behavior may change. In this study, we examined the relationships between subjective feelings of taste perception, taste preferences, and autistic traits with the behavior of adding flavor to food using an example of sprinkling salt on watermelon. From an online questionnaire survey among a general Japanese population, we found that salty and sour tastes could be subjectively perceived more quickly than sweet and umami tastes, in line with our expectations. Moreover, the hedonic responses to watermelon with salt were negatively correlated with a preference for bitter taste, i.e., those participants who dislike bitter taste sensations tended to enjoy watermelon with salt more. There was no correlation between the hedonic response to watermelon with salt and the subjective feeling of taste perceptions and autistic traits and no correlation between autistic traits, and the subjective feeling of taste perceptions and taste preferences. These results suggest that adding different tastes could be influenced by taste preferences; thus, the addition of a different taste was thought to be related to an unconscious motivation to reduce bitterness.
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Juravle G, Olari EL, Spence C. A taste for beauty: On the expected taste, hardness, texture, and temperature of geometric shapes. Iperception 2022; 13:20416695221120948. [PMID: 36157518 PMCID: PMC9490474 DOI: 10.1177/20416695221120948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Rounded shapes, which have been shown to enhance sweetness, were compared to the perfectly symmetrical Platonic solids. In a first online experiment, participants were presented with a rotating three-dimensional geometric shape (a sphere, the five Platonic solids, and three irregular angular/rounded/naturalistic controls), and indicated their liking for the shape, as well as its perceived hardness, and its expected temperature. The sphere was liked best, followed by the Platonic solids. The sphere was also evaluated as softest, and received the warmest temperature ratings. By contrast, the Platonic solids were rated as harder and significantly colder than the sphere. Experiment 2 investigated whether the liked shapes were also evaluated as looking tastier. Ratings of expected tastiness and the appearance of five shapes selected based on high liking scores and fitted with edible and inedible visual textures were recorded. The sphere was rated as looking tastiest, with edible-textured rounded shapes resulting in significantly tastier ratings. Experiment 3 assessed the taste corresponding to each shape. A sweet and umami preference for rounded shapes was documented, with sour and bitter typically matched to angular shapes. Importantly, the Platonic solids were associated with several tastes. These findings are explained in terms of current theories of crossmodal correspondences, while considering how temperature and texture can be used to modulate expected liking.
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Motoki K, Yamada A, Spence C. Color‐nutrient associations: Implications for product design of dietary supplements. J SENS STUD 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/joss.12777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Motoki
- Department of Management The University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan
- Department of Food Science and Business Miyagi University Sendai Japan
| | - Asumi Yamada
- Department of Food Science and Business Miyagi University Sendai Japan
| | - Charles Spence
- Crossmodal Research Laboratory University of Oxford Oxford UK
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Chen N, Watanabe K, Kobayakawa T, Wada M. Relationships between autistic traits, taste preference, taste perception, and eating behaviour. EUROPEAN EATING DISORDERS REVIEW 2022; 30:628-640. [PMID: 35690923 PMCID: PMC9545735 DOI: 10.1002/erv.2931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder exhibit atypical taste perception and eating behaviours. However, little is known about the effect of autistic traits on eating behaviours in the general population. This study explored the relationships between autistic traits, taste preferences, taste perceptions, and eating behaviours among Japanese population using an online questionnaire survey. The results showed significant effect of autistic traits on eating behaviours, that people with higher autistic traits tended to have higher selective eating behaviours, such as increased sensitivity to food texture and mixed flavours. Moreover, selective eating behaviours were correlated with the preference for sour taste and aftertaste sensitivity. Those results suggest that eating behaviours can be influenced by the relationship between autistic traits, taste perceptions, and taste preferences. We discuss these results in the context of previous findings, and future investigations into the possibility of solving selective eating problems in individuals with autism. Autistic traits were significantly correlated with eating behaviours. People with higher autistic traits tended to have higher selective eating behaviours, such as increased sensitivity to food texture and mixed flavours. People who like sour tastes tended to have less selective eating behaviours. People who are sensitive to aftertaste perception tended to have greater selective eating behaviours. Autistic traits, taste perceptions, and taste preferences play a role in the development of a number of selective eating behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation for Brain Functions, Research Institute of National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tatsu Kobayakawa
- Human Informatics and Interaction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Makoto Wada
- Department of Rehabilitation for Brain Functions, Research Institute of National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
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Spence C, Van Doorn G. Visual communication via the design of food and beverage packaging. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2022; 7:42. [PMID: 35551542 PMCID: PMC9098755 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-022-00391-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
A rapidly growing body of empirical research has recently started to emerge highlighting the connotative and/or semiotic meanings that consumers typically associate with specific abstract visual design features, such as colours (either when presented individually or in combination), simple shapes/curvilinearity, and the orientation and relative position of those design elements on product packaging. While certain of our affective responses to such basic visual design features appear almost innate, the majority are likely established via the internalization of the statistical regularities of the food and beverage marketplace (i.e. as a result of associative learning), as in the case of round typeface and sweet-tasting products. Researchers continue to document the wide range of crossmodal correspondences that underpin the links between individual visual packaging design features and specific properties of food and drink products (such as their taste, flavour, or healthfulness), and the ways in which marketers are now capitalizing on such understanding to increase sales. This narrative review highlights the further research that is still needed to establish the connotative or symbolic/semiotic meaning(s) of particular combinations of design features (such as coloured stripes in a specific orientation), as opposed to individual cues in national food markets and also, increasingly, cross-culturally in the case of international brands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Spence
- Crossmodal Research Laboratory, Oxford University, Oxford, OX2 6GG, UK.
| | - George Van Doorn
- School of Science, Psychology and Sport, Churchill Campus, Federation University Australia, Churchill, VIC, 3842, Australia.,Health Innovation and Transformation Centre, Mt Helen Campus, Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC, 3350, Australia.,Successful Health for At-Risk Populations (SHARP) Research Group, Mt Helen Campus, Federation University Australia, Ballarat, VIC, 3350, Australia
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