Untangling Caregiving Role From Parent Gender in Coparenting Research: Insights From Gay Two-Father Families

Mother-infant attachment from the perspective of young mothers: Does the data support a maternal instinct?

Some conceptualizations of attachment imply an instinctual behavior that occurs naturally. Mothers who endorse this view are at greater risk for psychological stress, depression, and harsh parenting styles if they do not feel an immediate bond with their infant postpartum. The purpose of this study is to explore actual experiences of attachment from the perspective of young mothers (N = 75, Mage = 19.45 years) and based on these findings the extent to which there is empirical support for a maternal instinct. Mothers were interviewed at home three times (2 weeks, four months, and seven months postpartum), and interviews were thematically analyzed using an open coding method. Three broad themes and six sub-themes emerged: 1) experiences with the immediacy of attachment at birth are diverse (traumatic birth experience, sense of a maternal identity), 2) contextual factors on the bonding experience (physical touch-based caretaking, parenting stress and depression), and 3) time spent parenting influences attachment (reciprocity, parental confidence/knowledge). In conclusion, we could not find empirical evidence to support an innate maternal instinct. Despite diverse experiences with felt attachment at birth, all mothers perceived that the mother-infant connection was influenced by contextual factors after birth and was strengthened over time with more care-taking experience. This suggests that mothers likely developed a "maternal instinct" through repetitive interaction with their infant as the primary caretaker rather than a genetic predisposition to be superior nurturing parents.

The indirect impact of infant negative emotionality on interparental conflict via perceptions of coparenting challenges: What prenatal resources mitigate this risk?

Research clearly demonstrates that conflictual interparental relationship dynamics can create a family context that contributes to child emotional insecurity and psychopathology. Significantly less research has examined familial factors that contribute to maladaptive conflict between parents. Scholars have alluded to the disruptive impacts of parenting a child with certain temperamental characteristics (e.g., negative emotionality). Yet, there is a lack of empirical research examining if and how child temperament contributes to later interparental conflict. Using an established multi-informant, multi-method sample of 150 families first assessed during pregnancy, and again when the child was 1, 2, and 3.5 years of age, the present study aimed to test an integrated conceptual model examining whether infants' negative emotionality assessed at age 1 predicts interparental conflict at age 3.5, as mediated through destructive coparenting dynamics in toddlerhood, and identifying prenatal protective factors mitigating this maladaptive pathway. Findings suggest that greater infant negative emotionality predicts worse interparental conflict management during preschool age by undermining the mother's (but not the father's) report of coparenting relationship quality during toddlerhood. However, these results were significant only to the extent that parents were lacking certain prenatal regulatory resources (i.e., low paternal self-compassion; less secure relationship between parents). Importantly, results point to the need for intervention and prevention efforts during pregnancy that might disrupt the deleterious impacts of parenting a child who is more reactive and prone to expressing negative emotions.

European gay fathers via surrogacy: Parenting, social support, anti-gay microaggressions, and child behavior problems

The present study investigated child behavior problems, parenting styles, coparenting, and couple relationship satisfaction in 67 European gay father families via surrogacy and 67 European heterosexual parent families via unassisted conception, all with children aged 1.5-10 years (M = 3.57 years, SD = 2.09). The two family groups were matched for child age and gender. In the gay father group only, the associations between family anti-gay microaggressions, family/friend support, and other main variables also were explored. Children of gay fathers had fewer externalizing and internalizing problems compared to children of heterosexual parents. Also, gay fathers reported more effective parenting styles, greater coparenting quality, and higher couple relationship satisfaction compared to heterosexual parents. Overall, child externalizing problems (i.e., aggression, rule-breaking) and internalizing problems (i.e., anxiety, depression) were more strongly associated with being raised in a heterosexual parent family, more authoritarian parenting, and lower positive coparenting. Specific to the gay father sample, anti-gay microaggressions experienced by family members were associated with more child internalizing problems, lower positive coparenting, and lower social support from family and friends. These results refute concerns about possible detrimental effects on child development of surrogacy conception or of being raised by gay fathers. The results further suggest that family therapists treating child behavior problems should focus mainly on improving the coparenting relationship, reducing authoritarian/punitive parenting styles, and (for gay father families specifically) coping with anti-gay microaggressions and lack of social support outside the nuclear family.

Neither Parents' Sex Nor the Type of Family Modulates Attentional Bias Toward Infant Faces: A Preliminary Study in Different-Sex and Same-Sex Parents

An attentional bias toward infant versus adult faces has been detected in parents and positively associated with sensitive caregiving behaviors. In previous research, the attentional bias has been measured as the difference in attention, in terms of reaction times, captured by infant versus adult faces; the larger the difference, the greater the cognitive engagement that adults deployed to infant faces. However, research so far has been mostly confined to samples of mothers, who have been more represented than fathers. Moreover, new family forms, especially same-sex families of men, have been left out of research. To clarify potential sex differences and extend previous findings to diverse family forms, we implemented a modified Go/no-Go attentional task measuring attentional bias to infant faces in parents with children aged from 2 to 36 months. The sample (N = 86) was matched and included 22 fathers and 22 mothers from different-sex families and 20 fathers and 22 mothers from same-sex families. Overall, the results confirmed that infant faces induced a greater attentional bias compared to adult faces. Moreover, we found that neither the type of family nor parents' sex modulated the attentional bias toward infant faces. The findings are discussed in relation to the importance of understanding the correlates of parental response to infant cues going beyond a heteronormative perspective on parenting.

Parental positive affect and negative affect in same- and different-sex parent families: no associations with parental gender and caregiving role

Positive and negative parental affect influence developing parent-child attachment relationships, especially during infancy as well as children's social-emotional, academic, and behavioral functioning later in life. Increasingly, because both mothers and fathers can play central caregiving roles, the parenting qualities of both parents demand consideration. Therefore, this study investigated whether parental gender and caregiving role were associated with mothers' and fathers' positive affect and negative affect during interactions with their 4-month-old firstborn infant, while determining whether parenting stress, infant temperament, having a singleton/twin, and living in the Netherlands, France, or the United Kingdom were related to parental positive affect and negative affect. In all, 135 different-sex, same-sex male, and same-sex female couples (113 fathers and 157 mothers, comprising 147 primary, and 123 secondary caregivers) who conceived through artificial reproductive techniques were studied. The couples were videorecorded at home while in feeding, cleaning, and playing contexts to assess the levels of positive and negative parental affect. In addition, the couples completed questionnaires about their caregiving role, parenting stress, and the infants' temperament. Mixed linear models indicated that the levels of positive and negative parental affect toward the infant in all contexts were not related to parental gender, caregiving role, the interaction between parental gender and caregiving role, parenting stress, infant temperament, or singleton/twin status. However, the target parental behaviors were related to the country of origin, suggesting differences among Dutch, French, and British parents. Overall, we found no evidence that gender or caregiving roles were associated with the levels of positive and negative affect shown by the parents.

The Intersection of Childcare and Health Among Women at a U.S. Safety-Net Health System During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study

Introduction

Lack of childcare has been linked to missed health care appointments for adult women, especially for lower-income women. The COVID-19 pandemic created additional stressors for many low-income families that already struggled to meet childcare and health care needs. By exploring the experiences of women who were referred for childcare services at a U.S. safety-net health system, we aimed to understand the challenges women faced in managing their health and childcare needs during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

We conducted semistructured interviews with participants in Dallas County, TX between August 2021 and February 2022. All participants were referred from women's health clinics at the county's safety-net hospital system to an on-site drop-off childcare center by hospital staff who identified lack of childcare as a barrier to health care access. Participants were the primary caregiver for at least one child ≤age 13. Interviews were conducted in English or Spanish. We analyzed data using thematic content analysis.

Results

We interviewed 22 participants (mean age 34); participants were adult women, had on average 3 children, and primarily identified as Hispanic or African American. Three interrelated themes emerged: disruptions in access, competing priorities, and exacerbated psychological distress.

Conclusions

Findings demonstrate how low-income women with young children in a safety-net health system struggle to address their own health needs amid childcare and other household demands. Our study advances our understanding of childcare as a social domain of health, a necessary step to inform how we build structural support systems and drive policy interventions.

Attentional bias to infant faces might be associated with previous care experiences and involvement in childcare in same-sex mothers

Background

Attentional bias toward infant faces is associated with parental sensitivity and supports the infant-caregiver attachment relationship, ultimately fostering child health outcomes. However, experience-related determinants of parents' attentional bias to infant faces have been poorly investigated. We examined attentional bias to infant versus adult faces in a sample of same-sex mothers (N = 76), and whether it varied depending on maternal involvement in childcare and the perceived quality of past experiences of care.

Method

A Go/no-Go attentional task was used to compare the effects of infant and adult faces in retaining attention. Maternal involvement in childcare was measured using items addressing nurturing behaviors. Memories of past experiences of care were collected using the short-form version of the Parental Acceptance-Rejection scale.

Results

Results confirmed that infant faces induced greater attentional bias compared to adult faces. More involved mothers were more biased, in terms of attention, to infant versus adult faces. Attentional bias to infant versus adult faces increased as mothers felt more rejected by their own fathers during childhood.

Discussion

Our findings suggested that attentional bias to infant faces might be associated with past experiences of care and direct commitment in childcare in same-sex mothers. Robust and accurate empirical findings on same-sex parent families are essential to inform social policies supporting these families' well being.

Parenting, dyadic coping, and child emotion regulation in lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parent families through assisted reproduction

AIMS

The present study examined the associations between family structure, parenting, and dyadic coping and children's emotion regulation in lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parent families through assisted reproduction. It also explored differences in parenting dimensions and dyadic coping, based on parents' sexual orientation.

METHODS

Participants were 60 lesbian mothers through donor insemination, 50 gay fathers through surrogacy, and 42 heterosexual parents through gamete donation, all with a child aged 6-12 years (M = 8.67; SD = 2.16; 48.68% females) and residing in Italy. In each family, both parents reported parenting stress, parent - child relational self-efficacy, parental control, dyadic coping, and their perception of the child's emotion regulation.

RESULTS

Mixed models indicated no significant differences between family types in parenting stress and use of a controlling parenting style. However, lesbian mothers reported higher parent - child relational self-efficacy than heterosexual parents, and higher dyadic coping strategies than gay fathers. Also, children of gay fathers showed greater emotion regulation than children of heterosexual parents. Across family types, higher levels of parenting stress and dyadic coping, and lower levels of parent - child relational self-efficacy were associated with lower child emotion regulation.

CONCLUSION

Given that in middle childhood, across family types, better emotional regulation was associated with lower parenting stress and dyadic coping, and greater effectiveness in the parent - child relationship clinical work should focus on the parent's and couple's ability to cooperatively manage stressors while maintaining a balanced focus on their children's resources and autonomy.

Mental Health Disparities Between Lesbian Mothers and Heterosexual Parents: the Mediating Role of Positivity

Introduction

Previous evidence has shown better mental health outcomes for lesbian mothers, in comparison with heterosexual parents. The present study explored the mediating role of positivity (i.e., the tendency to view life with a positive outlook) in determining these mental health differences.

Methods

Seventy-two Israeli lesbian mothers by donor insemination (from 36 families) were compared with 72 Israeli heterosexual parents by assisted reproduction (without donated gametes; from 36 families) on positivity, life satisfaction, and depressive symptomatology. All parents were cisgender and had at least one child born through assisted reproduction, aged 3-10 years. Data were collected between December 2019 and February 2021.

Results

Mediational analyses indicated that lesbian mothers reported greater positivity, which was, in turn, associated with greater life satisfaction and less depressive symptomatology.

Conclusions

The results pinpoint the possible protective and strengthening role of positivity for lesbian mothers in the pronatalist and familistic environment of Israel. The research contributes to the literature on the mental health of parents with diverse sexual orientations living outside of the USA and Europe. Policy Implications Policymakers and mental health professional should be knowledgeable about the importance of improving positivity as a strategy for reducing depressive symptomatology and promoting life satisfaction among lesbian mothers. Moreover, policy makers and legislators are called to ease the access of sexual minority individuals to parenthood, as in this population parenthood associates with heightened mental health outcomes.

Stress and Resilience Experiences during the Transition to Parenthood among Belgian Lesbian Mothers through Donor Insemination

The present research explored parenting, stress, and resilience experiences among 16 Belgian, lesbian, first-time parental couples with donor-conceived children aged 3-72 months. In each couple, both mothers participated in a conjoint, semi-structured interview focused on their parenthood desire; the impact of stigmatization and social support from families of origin, friends, and institutions; and couple and family resources. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using Braun and Clarke's reflective thematic analysis. Four themes were identified: (1) "The precious baby": Realizing the parenthood project; (2) "Can we show ourselves in public without prying eyes?": Family social visibility; (3) "It's complicated!": Parental legal recognition and role imbalance; and (4) "How can we handle this?": Family resilience. The themes indicated that the child's donor conception, the parents' coming out, the non-gestational mother's role, the legal obstacles encountered, and the need to find a balance between the two mothers in childcare tasks generated stress and required mothers to develop resilience strategies. The results suggest several potential areas for mental health practitioners to explore in clinical contexts when supporting intended lesbian mothers in their transition to parenthood through donor insemination.

Attentional Prioritization of Infant Faces in Parents: The Influence of Parents' Experiences of Care

Infant faces are prioritized by the attentional system in parents, resulting in a greater cognitive engagement in terms of response time. However, many biological, contextual and environmental factors relating to this cognitive mechanism have been left unexplored. To fill this gap, this study aims to (i) confirm that infant faces engage more attention compared to adult faces; (ii) investigate whether the attention to infant faces is affected early care experiences of parents; (iii) explore the effect of parents' sex by taking the amount of involvement with early childcare into consideration. 51 mothers and 46 fathers completed a modified Go/no-Go task, a brief sociodemographic questionnaire, the short version of the Adult Parental Acceptance-Rejection scale, and an ad-hoc question relating to the amount of parental involvement with early childcare. Parents' response times were slowed in the presence of infant versus adult faces. Parents whose mother was perceived as more sensitively accepting were more engaged by infant cues. By considering the amount of early parental involvement, the sex of parents did not significantly interact with the type of face. These findings provide new insights on the attention process in response to infant cues in parents and suggest that the investigation of experience-based factors may shed further light on this topic.

Family Alliance and Intergenerational Transmission of Coparenting in Gay and Heterosexual Single-Father Families through Surrogacy: Associations with Child Attachment Security

Parents tend to internalize the coparenting model they experienced during childhood and enact it in their coparenting relationships as adults. These interactive patterns may, in turn, shape their children's internal working models of attachment relationships. The present study recruited 31 gay and 28 heterosexual single-father families through surrogacy to examine family alliance quality and the mediating role of observed supportive and conflictual coparenting in the association between the coparenting quality single fathers experienced in their families of origin and the attachment security of their children. All single fathers lived in Italy, were cisgender and White, and had a child aged 6-12 years (M = 97.73 months; SD = 20.48; 47.5% girls) who they coparented with nonparental caregivers (i.e., 33 grandparents, 18 babysitters, 8 uncles/aunts). Families did not differ in family alliance dimensions based on fathers' sexual orientation. Additionally, single fathers who experienced greater coparenting quality in their families of origin demonstrated lower levels of conflictual coparenting, which, in turn, were associated with greater child attachment security. In contrast, observed supportive coparenting did not mediate this relation. The results emphasize the need to reconceptualize the dyadic coparental unit in single-father surrogacy families to include extended family members and nonrelatives.

Assisted Conception Socialization Self-Efficacy Among Israeli Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Parent Families and its Association with Child Externalizing Problems

This questionnaire-based study compared 36 Israeli lesbian mother families (n = 72 lesbian mothers) formed by donor insemination, 39 Israeli gay father families (n = 78 gay fathers) formed by gestational surrogacy, and 36 Israeli heterosexual parent families (n = 72 heterosexual parents) formed by assisted reproduction (without donated gametes), all with a target child aged 3-10 years. The families were examined for parents' assisted conception socialization self-efficacy, depression, negative and positive affect, life satisfaction, positivity, resilience, social support, and child externalizing problems. Multiple factors associated with child externalizing problems were also examined. Multilevel modeling analyses indicated that parents' assisted conception socialization self-efficacy did not differ between family groups; however, lesbian mothers and gay fathers reported fewer child externalizing problems and greater social support, relative to heterosexual parents. Also, lesbian mothers-but not gay fathers-reported lower levels of depression, greater life satisfaction, and more positivity than did heterosexual parents. Finally, irrespective of family type, greater assisted conception socialization self-efficacy was associated with fewer parent-reported child externalizing problems. Findings are interpreted in light of the cultural socialization framework and Israel's familistic and pronatalist environment. Implications for health professionals, educators, and policymakers working with diverse family forms are discussed.