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Angerer V, Schmid Y, Franz F, Gnann H, Speer JM, Gnann A, Helmecke S, Buchwald A, Brandt SD, Passie T, Liechti ME, Auwärter V. Acute psychotropic, autonomic, and endocrine effects of 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI) compared with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in human volunteers: A self-administration study. Drug Test Anal 2023. [PMID: 38056906 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
The acute psychoactive, autonomic, and endocrine effects of the new psychoactive substance (NPS) 5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI; 3.0 mg/kg, range 180-228 mg) were investigated in six healthy volunteers (four males, two females) in a non-blinded fashion without placebo. Subjective, cardiovascular, and endocrine responses were compared with two different doses of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) (75 mg and 125 mg) described in previously published placebo-controlled studies, which used identical outcome measures including Visual Analogue Scales (VAS), the Adjective Mood Rating Scale (AMRS), and the 5 Dimensions of Altered States of Consciousness (5D-ASC) scale. MDAI was well tolerated and produced subjective effects comparable with those of 125 mg MDMA. MDAI increased blood pressure similar to 125 mg MDMA but did not increase heart rate or body temperature. MDAI increased cortisol and prolactin levels and could be detected in serum about 20 min post ingestion and remained detectable at least for 4 days. In urine, MDAI was detectable over a period of at least 6 days. Further clinical investigations are warranted to assess whether MDAI could serve as drug with medicinal properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Angerer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Yasmin Schmid
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Florian Franz
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | - Armin Buchwald
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Torsten Passie
- Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Dr. Senckenberg Institute for History and Ethics in Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt/Main, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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2
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Behavioral and Pharmacokinetics Studies of N-Methyl-2-Aminoindane (NM2AI) in Mice: An Aminoindane Briefly Used in the Illicit Drug Market. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24031882. [PMID: 36768197 PMCID: PMC9916073 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24031882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug forums are considered as the main platform sources that have contributed to the increase in NPS popularity, especially for those not yet known to law enforcement and therefore not yet illegal. An example is the new synthetic stimulant NM2AI, which has a very short history of human use and abuse. Little is known regarding this compound, but some information from internet forums and the scientific literature indicates NM2AI as a structural derivate of MDAI, which is known for its entactogenic activity. Indeed, the purpose of this study is to evaluate, for the first time, the in vivo acute effect induced by the intraperitoneal injection of NM2AI (1-10-30-100 mg/kg) in mice. We demonstrate the sensory (by visual placing and object tests) and physiological (core temperature measurement) function variations, nociceptor (by tail pinch test) and strength (grip test) alterations, and sensorimotor (time on rod and mobility) decrease. Moreover, we verify the mild hallucinogenic effect of NM2AI (by startle/prepulse inhibition test). Lastly, we perform a pharmacokinetic study on mice blood samples, highlighting that the main active metabolite of NM2AI is 2-aminoindane (2AI). Taken together, our data confirm the suspected entactogenic activity of NM2AI; however, these in vivo effects appear atypical and less intense with respect to those induced by the classic stimulants, in surprising analogy with what is reported by networked users.
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Simão AY, Antunes M, Cabral E, Oliveira P, Rosendo LM, Brinca AT, Alves E, Marques H, Rosado T, Passarinha LA, Andraus M, Barroso M, Gallardo E. An Update on the Implications of New Psychoactive Substances in Public Health. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19084869. [PMID: 35457736 PMCID: PMC9028227 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of new psychoactive substances has earned a great deal of attention, and several reports of acute poisoning and deaths have been issued involving, for instance, synthetic opiates. In recent years, there have been profound alterations in the legislation concerning consumption, marketing, and synthesis of these compounds; rapid alert systems have also been subject to changes, and new substances and new markets, mainly through the internet, have appeared. Their effects and how they originate in consumers are still mostly unknown, primarily in what concerns chronic toxicity. This review intends to provide a detailed description of these substances from the point of view of consumption, toxicokinetics, and health consequences, including case reports on intoxications in order to help researchers and public health agents working daily in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Y. Simão
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
| | - Mónica Antunes
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Delegação do Sul, 1150-219 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Emanuel Cabral
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Patrik Oliveira
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Luana M. Rosendo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Ana Teresa Brinca
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Estefânia Alves
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
| | - Hernâni Marques
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
| | - Tiago Rosado
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
| | - Luís A. Passarinha
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Departamento de Química, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA, 2819-516 Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
| | - Maristela Andraus
- Chromatox/Dasa Laboratory Ltda. Sumaré, São Paulo 01259-000, Brazil
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Delegação do Sul, 1150-219 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-506 Covilha, Portugal; (A.Y.S.); (M.A.); (E.C.); (P.O.); (L.M.R.); (A.T.B.); (E.A.); (H.M.); (T.R.)
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6200-284 Covilha, Portugal
- Correspondence: (L.A.P.); (M.A.); (M.B.); (E.G.); Tel.: +351-275-329-001 (L.A.P. & E.G.); +55-800-042-0384 (M.A.); +351-21-881-1800 (M.B.)
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4
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A novel multi-target strategy to attenuate the progression of Parkinson's disease by diamine hybrid AGE/ALE inhibitor. Future Med Chem 2021; 13:2185-2200. [PMID: 34634921 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2021-0217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Instead of a conventional 'one-drug-one-target approach', this article presents a novel multi-target approach with a concept of trapping simultaneously as many detrimental factors as possible involved in the progression of Parkinson's disease. These factors include reactive carbonyl species, reactive oxygen species, Fe3+/Cu2+ and ortho-quinones (o-quinone), in particular. Different from the known multi-target strategies for Parkinson's disease, it is a sort of 'vacuum cleaning' strategy. The new agent consists of reactive carbonyl species scavenging moiety and reactive oxygen species scavenging and metal chelating moiety linked by a spacer. Provided that the capacity of scavenging o-quinones is demonstrated, this type of agent can further broaden its potential therapeutic profile. In order to support this new hypothetical approach, a number of simple in vitro experiments are proposed.
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5
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Docherty JR, Alsufyani HA. Pharmacology of Drugs Used as Stimulants. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 2:S53-S69. [PMID: 34396557 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Psychostimulant, cardiovascular, and temperature actions of stimulants involve adrenergic (norepinephrine), dopaminergic (dopamine), and serotonergic (serotonin) pathways. Stimulants such as amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), or mephedrone can act on the neuronal membrane monoamine transporters NET, DAT, and SERT and/or the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 to inhibit reuptake of neurotransmitter or cause release by reverse transport. Stimulants may have additional effects involving pre- and postsynaptic/junctional receptors for norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin and other receptors. As a result, stimulants may have a wide range of possible actions. Agents with cocaine or MDMA-like actions can induce serious and potentially fatal adverse events via thermodysregulatory, cardiovascular, or other mechanisms. MDMA-like stimulants may cause hyperthermia that can be life threathening. Recreational users of stimulants should be aware of the dangers of hyperthermia in a rave/club environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hadeel A Alsufyani
- Department of Physiology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Rudin D, Liechti ME, Luethi D. Molecular and clinical aspects of potential neurotoxicity induced by new psychoactive stimulants and psychedelics. Exp Neurol 2021; 343:113778. [PMID: 34090893 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive stimulants and psychedelics continue to play an important role on the illicit new psychoactive substance (NPS) market. Designer stimulants and psychedelics both affect monoaminergic systems, although by different mechanisms. Stimulant NPS primarily interact with monoamine transporters, either as inhibitors or as substrates. Psychedelic NPS most potently interact with serotonergic receptors and mediate their mind-altering effects mainly through agonism at serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors. Rarely, designer stimulants and psychedelics are associated with potentially severe adverse effects. However, due to the high number of emerging NPS, it is not possible to investigate the toxicity of each individual substance in detail. The brain is an organ particularly sensitive to substance-induced toxicity due to its high metabolic activity. In fact, stimulant and psychedelic NPS have been linked to neurological and cognitive impairments. Furthermore, studies using in vitro cell models or rodents indicate a variety of mechanisms that could potentially lead to neurotoxic damage in NPS users. Cytotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress may potentially contribute to neurotoxicity of stimulant NPS in addition to altered neurochemistry. Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor-mediated toxicity, oxidative stress, and activation of mitochondrial apoptosis pathways could contribute to neurotoxicity of some psychedelic NPS. However, it remains unclear how well the current preclinical data of NPS-induced neurotoxicity translate to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Rudin
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Institute of Applied Physics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria.
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7
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Tathe AG, Urvashi, Yadav AK, Chintawar CC, Patil NT. Gold-Catalyzed 1,2-Aminoarylation of Alkenes with External Amines. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c00789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Akash G. Tathe
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhauri, Bhopal−462 066, India
| | - Urvashi
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhauri, Bhopal−462 066, India
| | - Amit K. Yadav
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhauri, Bhopal−462 066, India
| | - Chetan C. Chintawar
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhauri, Bhopal−462 066, India
| | - Nitin T. Patil
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhauri, Bhopal−462 066, India
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8
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Rose AR, Staretz ME, Joshi M, Wood M, Brettell TA. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of eight aminoindanes: 2-Aminoindane, N-methyl-2-, 5-methoxy-, 5-methoxy-6-methyl-, 4,5-methylenedioxy-, 5,6-methylenedioxy- and 5-iodo-2-aminoindane, and rasagiline. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2021; 35:e9207. [PMID: 34599535 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Aminoindanes are one class of many new psychoactive substances that have emerged over the last decade. Analogues of 2-aminoindane (2-AI) are being encountered in crime laboratories and analytical data for most aminoindanes are limited. Interpretation and optimization of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry data will enhance reliability in characterizing aminoindanes. METHODS This study focuses on the electron ionization mass spectrometric fragmentation of eight aminoindane analogues and the gas chromatographic separation of these eight aminoindane analogues using four different column stationary phases, Rxi®-1Sil MS, Rxi®-5Sil MS, Rxi®-35Sil MS, and Rxi®-624Sil MS. Split injection (25:1) was utilized and each column had the same configuration (30 m × 25 mm × 0.25 μm), with the exception of the Rxi®-624Sil MS column (30 m × 25 mm ×1.4 μm). RESULTS Mass spectra showed strong molecular ions for all aminoindanes, except for rasagiline that produced a uniquely abundant [M - 1] ion. Other characteristic fragmentation that was present for all the aminoindanes included indane and indene ions (m/z 115-117), the tropylium ion (m/z 91), and subsequent loss of diene to produce smaller ions that followed: phenyl (m/z 77), cyclopentadienyl (m/z 65), cyclobutadienyl (m/z 51), and cyclopropenyl (m/z 39). CONCLUSIONS Separation of eight aminoindanes was optimized, and linear retention indices were determined for the compounds on four capillary columns. Based on the retention data, all eight aminoindanes were resolved on an Rxi®-624Sil MS column. Each aminoindane exhibited unique fragmentation ions in the mass spectra to distinguish between similar analogues. The results of this study will strengthen the analytical profiles of 2-AI and seven analogues, assisting forensic scientists in their analysis and identification of these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber R Rose
- Forensic Science Program, Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Cedar Crest College, Allentown, PA, USA
| | - Marianne E Staretz
- Forensic Science Program, Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Cedar Crest College, Allentown, PA, USA
| | - Monica Joshi
- Department of Chemistry, West Chester University, West Chester, PA, USA
| | - Matthew Wood
- Ocean County Sheriff's Department, Toms River, NJ, USA
| | - Thomas A Brettell
- Forensic Science Program, Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Cedar Crest College, Allentown, PA, USA
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9
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Chaudhary B, Kulkarni N, Saiyed N, Chaurasia M, Desai S, Potkule S, Sharma S. β
‐Trifluoromethyl
α
,
β
‐unsaturated Ketones: Efficient Building Blocks for Diverse Trifluoromethylated Molecules. Adv Synth Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.202001018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bharatkumar Chaudhary
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Ahmedabad (NIPER−A) Gandhinagar Gujarat 382355 INDIA
| | - Neeraj Kulkarni
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Ahmedabad (NIPER−A) Gandhinagar Gujarat 382355 INDIA
| | - Nehanaz Saiyed
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Ahmedabad (NIPER−A) Gandhinagar Gujarat 382355 INDIA
| | - Meenakshi Chaurasia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Ahmedabad (NIPER−A) Gandhinagar Gujarat 382355 INDIA
| | - Surbhi Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Ahmedabad (NIPER−A) Gandhinagar Gujarat 382355 INDIA
| | - Sagar Potkule
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Ahmedabad (NIPER−A) Gandhinagar Gujarat 382355 INDIA
| | - Satyasheel Sharma
- Department of Natural Products National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Ahmedabad (NIPER−A) Gandhinagar Gujarat 382355 INDIA
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10
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Carroll FI, Lewin AH, Mascarella SW, Seltzman HH, Reddy PA. Designer drugs: a medicinal chemistry perspective (II). Ann N Y Acad Sci 2020; 1489:48-77. [PMID: 32396701 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
During 2012-2018, the clandestine manufacture of new psychoactive substances (NPS) designed to circumvent substance control regulations increased exponentially worldwide, with concomitant increase in fatalities. This review focuses on three compound classes identified as synthetic opioids, synthetic amphetamines, and synthetic cannabinoids and highlights the medicinal chemistry precedents utilized by clandestine laboratories to develop new NPS with increased brain penetration, longer duration of action, and greater potency. Chemical approaches to illicit drug abuse treatment options, particularly for opioid use disorder, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Ivy Carroll
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Anita H Lewin
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - S Wayne Mascarella
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Herbert H Seltzman
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - P Anantha Reddy
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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Abstract
Psychoactive substances with chemical structures or pharmacological profiles that are similar to traditional drugs of abuse continue to emerge on the recreational drug market. Internet vendors may at least temporarily sell these so-called designer drugs without adhering to legal statutes or facing legal consequences. Overall, the mechanism of action and adverse effects of designer drugs are similar to traditional drugs of abuse. Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cathinones, primarily interact with monoamine transporters and mostly induce sympathomimetic adverse effects. Agonism at μ-opioid receptors and γ-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) or GABAB receptors mediates the pharmacological effects of sedatives, which may induce cardiorespiratory depression. Dissociative designer drugs primarily act as N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists and pose similar health risks as the medically approved dissociative anesthetic ketamine. The cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is thought to drive the psychoactive effects of synthetic cannabinoids, which are associated with a less desirable effect profile and more severe adverse effects compared with cannabis. Serotonergic 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors mediate alterations of perception and cognition that are induced by serotonergic psychedelics. Because of their novelty, designer drugs may remain undetected by routine drug screening, thus hampering evaluations of adverse effects. Intoxication reports suggest that several designer drugs are used concurrently, posing a high risk for severe adverse effects and even death.
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12
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Manier SK, Felske C, Eckstein N, Meyer MR. The metabolic fate of two new psychoactive substances - 2-aminoindane and N-methyl-2-aminoindane - studied in vitro and in vivo to support drug testing. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:145-151. [PMID: 31667988 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of 2-aminoindane (2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, 2-AI), and N-methyl-2-aminoindane (N-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-amine, NM-2-AI) after incubations using pooled human liver microsomes (pHLMs), pooled human liver S9 fraction (pS9), and rat urine after oral administration. After analysis using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry, pHLM incubations revealed that 2-AI was left unmetabolized, while NM-2-AI formed a hydroxylamine and diastereomers of a metabolite formed after hydroxylation in beta position. Incubations using pS9 led to the formation of an acetyl conjugation in the case of 2-AI and merely a hydroxylamine for NM-2-AI. Investigations on rat urine showed that 2-AI was hydroxylated also forming diasteromers as described for NM-2-AI or acetylated similar to incubations using pS9. All hydroxylated metabolites of NM-2-AI except the hydroxylamine were found in rat urine as additional sulfates. Assuming similar patterns in humans, urine screening procedures might be focused on the parent compounds but should also include their metabolites. An activity screening using human recombinant N-acetyl transferase (NAT) isoforms 1 and 2 revealed that 2-AI was acetylated exclusively by NAT2, which is polymorphically expressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha K Manier
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
| | - Christina Felske
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany.,Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Niels Eckstein
- Applied Pharmacy, University of Applied Sciences Kaiserslautern, Pirmasens, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
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13
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Fabregat-Safont D, Carbón X, Ventura M, Fornís I, Hernández F, Ibáñez M. Characterization of a recently detected halogenated aminorex derivative: para-fluoro-4-methylaminorex (4'F-4-MAR). Sci Rep 2019; 9:8314. [PMID: 31165778 PMCID: PMC6549166 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44830-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the fact that 33% of the new psychoactive substances seized in 2015 were synthetic cathinones, the number of these derivatives has been decreasing in the last years, probably as a consequence of the unfavourable effects reported by users. Thus, the list of possible cathinone analogues is expected to get shorter, and it is likely that the same moiety changes applied for the preparation of synthetic cathinones will be applied in the near future to other stimulants in the search for favourable alternatives to controlled substances. This is evidenced by the increase in newly reported substances belonging to stimulant classes other than cathinones. One of the possible candidates for a new backbone from which to base new stimulants is aminorex, which is classified as a Schedule I substance by the Drug Enforcement Administration. Three derivatives have been reported until now: 4-methylaminorex or 4-MAR (also categorized as a Schedule I substance), para-methyl-4-methylaminorex (4,4′-DMAR) and 3′,4′-methylenedioxy-4-methylaminorex (MDMAR). Recently, the new halogenated 4-MAR derivative, para-fluoro-4-methylaminorex, characterised in this work (and abbreviated as pF-4-methylaminorex or 4′F-4-MAR) was detected by the Slovenian police. In the present work, 4′F-4-MAR has been characterized by high resolution mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance in a sample obtained from an anonymous consumer. This research shows that the same modifications applied for the preparation of synthetic cathinones are being used to prepare new stimulants based on the aminorex backbone.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Fabregat-Safont
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - X Carbón
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo), c/Independencia 384, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Ventura
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo), c/Independencia 384, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - I Fornís
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo), c/Independencia 384, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - M Ibáñez
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
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14
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Firman JW, Belfield SJ, Chen G, Jackson M, Lam FH, Richmond C, Smith J, Steinmetz FP, Cronin MTD. Chemoinformatic Consideration of Novel Psychoactive Substances: Compilation and Preliminary Analysis of a Categorised Dataset. Mol Inform 2019; 38:e1800142. [DOI: 10.1002/minf.201800142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James W. Firman
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Samuel J. Belfield
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - George Chen
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Megan Jackson
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Fai Hou Lam
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Callum Richmond
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - James Smith
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | | | - Mark T. D. Cronin
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
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15
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Miliano C, Margiani G, Fattore L, De Luca MA. Sales and Advertising Channels of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Internet, Social Networks, and Smartphone Apps. Brain Sci 2018; 8:E123. [PMID: 29966280 PMCID: PMC6071095 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8070123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, the trend of drug consumption has completely changed, and several new psychoactive substances (NPS) have appeared on the drug market as legal alternatives to common drugs of abuse. Designed to reproduce the effects of illegal substances like cannabis, ecstasy, cocaine, or ketamine, NPS are only in part controlled by UN conventions and represent an emerging threat to global public health. The effects of NPS greatly differ from drug to drug and relatively scarce information is available at present about their pharmacology and potential toxic effects. Yet, compared to more traditional drugs, more dangerous short- and long-term effects have been associated with their use, and hospitalizations and fatal intoxications have also been reported after NPS use. In the era of cyberculture, the Internet acts as an ideal platform to promote and market these compounds, leading to a global phenomenon. Hidden by several aliases, these substances are sold across the web, and information about consumption is shared by online communities through drug fora, YouTube channels, social networks, and smartphone applications (apps). This review intends to provide an overview and analysis of social media that contribute to the popularity of NPS especially among young people. The possibility of using the same channels responsible for their growing diffusion to make users aware of the risks associated with NPS use is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Miliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato-SP 8, Km 0.700-09042, Monserrato, 09121 Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Giulia Margiani
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato-SP 8, Km 0.700-09042, Monserrato, 09121 Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Liana Fattore
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience-Cagliari, National Research Council, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato-SP 8, Km 0.700-09042, Monserrato, 09100 Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Maria Antonietta De Luca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato-SP 8, Km 0.700-09042, Monserrato, 09121 Cagliari, Italy.
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16
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Simmler LD, Liechti ME. Pharmacology of MDMA- and Amphetamine-Like New Psychoactive Substances. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2018; 252:143-164. [PMID: 29633178 DOI: 10.1007/164_2018_113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) with amphetamine-, aminoindan-, and benzofuran basic chemical structures have recently emerged for recreational drug use. Detailed information about their psychotropic effects and health risks is often limited. At the same time, it emerged that the pharmacological profiles of these NPS resemble those of amphetamine or 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Amphetamine-like NPS induce psychostimulation and euphoria mediated predominantly by norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) transporter (NET and DAT) inhibition and transporter-mediated release of NE and DA, thus showing a more catecholamine-selective profile. MDMA-like NPS frequently induce well-being, empathy, and prosocial effects and have only moderate psychostimulant properties. These MDMA-like substances primarily act by inhibiting the serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) and NET, also inducing 5-HT and NE release. Monoamine receptor interactions vary considerably among amphetamine- and MDMA-like NPS. Clinically, amphetamine- and MDMA-like NPS can induce sympathomimetic toxicity. The aim of this chapter is to review the state of knowledge regarding these substances with a focus on the description of the in vitro pharmacology of selected amphetamine- and MDMA-like NPS. In addition, it is aimed to provide links between pharmacological profiles and in vivo effects and toxicity, which leads to the conclusion that abuse liability for amphetamine-like NPS may be higher than for MDMA-like NPS, but that the risk for developing the life-threatening serotonin syndrome may be increased for MDMA-like NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda D Simmler
- Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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