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Foltin S, Glenk LM. Current Perspectives on the Challenges of Implementing Assistance Dogs in Human Mental Health Care. Vet Sci 2023; 10:vetsci10010062. [PMID: 36669063 PMCID: PMC9867308 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10010062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of mental health disorders, driven by current global crises, is notably high. During the past decades, the popularity of dogs assisting humans with a wide spectrum of mental health disorders has significantly increased. Notwithstanding these dogs' doubtless value, research on their legal status, certification processes, training and management practices, as well as their welfare status, has been scarce. This scoping review highlights that in contrast to other assistance dogs such as guide dogs, there exists no consistent terminology to mark dogs that assist humans with impaired mental health. Legal authorities monitoring the accreditation process, training and tracking of mental health supporting dogs are broadly lacking, with only few exceptions. This review emphasizes the need to address several topics in the promotion of progress in legal and welfare issues related to assistance dogs as well as emotional support dogs for humans with a mental health disorder. The current body of knowledge was assessed in three different areas of focus: (1) the legal dimension including definitions and certification processes; (2) the dimension of performed tasks; and (3) the dog welfare dimension including aspects of the relationship with the handler and risks associated with children recipients. Considering the challenges associated with a mental health diagnosis, collaborations of dog provider organizations and health care professionals would be desirable to continuously assess the efficiency of the human-dog dyad regarding their overall compatibility, general satisfaction and mutual well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Foltin
- Department of Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45141 Essen, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Lisa Maria Glenk
- Comparative Medicine, The Interuniversity Messerli Research Institute of the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria
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Dogs can discriminate between human baseline and psychological stress condition odours. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0274143. [PMID: 36170254 PMCID: PMC9518869 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0274143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research suggests that dogs can detect when humans are experiencing stress. This study tested whether baseline and stress odours were distinguishable to dogs, using a double-blind, two-phase, three-alternative forced-choice procedure. Combined breath and sweat samples were obtained from participants at baseline, and after a stress-inducing (mental arithmetic) task. Participants’ stress was validated with self-report and physiological measures recorded via a Biopac MP150 system. Thirty-six participants’ samples were presented to four dogs across 36 sessions (16, 11, 7 and 2 sessions, respectively). Each session consisted of 10 Phase One training trials and 20 Phase Two discrimination trials. In Phase One, the dog was presented with a participant’s stress sample (taken immediately post-task) alongside two blanks (the sample materials without breath or sweat), and was required to identify the stress sample with an alert behaviour. In Phase Two, the dog was presented with the stress sample, the same participant’s baseline sample (taken pre-task), and a blank. Which sample (blank, baseline, or stress) the dog performed their alert behaviour on was measured. If dogs can correctly alert on the stress sample in Phase Two (when the baseline sample was present), it suggests that baseline and stress odours are distinguishable. Performance ranged from 90.00% to 96.88% accuracy with a combined accuracy of 93.75% (N trials = 720). A binomial test (where probability of success on a single trial was 0.33, and alpha was 0.05) showed that the proportion of correct trials was greater than that expected by chance (p < 0.001). Results indicate that the physiological processes associated with an acute psychological stress response produce changes in the volatile organic compounds emanating from breath and/or sweat that are detectable to dogs. These results add to our understanding of human-dog relationships and could have applications to Emotional Support and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) service dogs.
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Otto CM, Darling T, Murphy L, Ng Z, Pierce B, Singletary M, Zoran D. 2021 AAHA Working, Assistance, and Therapy Dog Guidelines. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2021; 57:253-277. [PMID: 34710214 DOI: 10.5326/jaaha-ms-7250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The guidelines are the first comprehensive consensus report on veterinary healthcare recommendations for working, assistance, and therapy dogs. This category of canine patients includes a broad assortment of animals, some with well-defined functions and others that provide a more generalized support role. The guidelines discuss recommendations for dogs trained for protection, odor/scent detection, service functions for people with diagnosed disabilities or physical limitations, emotional support, and therapeutic intervention. Although the term is often used to describe dogs providing animal-assisted activities, true therapy dogs provide goal-directed therapy, often under the supervision of a healthcare professional such as an occupational therapist or psychologist. Many working dogs undergo extensive training and have rigorous physical demands placed upon them. These factors make working, assistance, and therapy dogs inherently valuable and impose a need for a high level of primary veterinary care as described in the guidelines. Because working dogs have a particularly close relationship with their handlers, a trust relationship between the practice team and the working-dog client is imperative.
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Chen FL, Zimmermann M, Hekman JP, Lord KA, Logan B, Russenberger J, Leighton EA, Karlsson EK. Advancing Genetic Selection and Behavioral Genomics of Working Dogs Through Collaborative Science. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:662429. [PMID: 34552971 PMCID: PMC8450581 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.662429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The ancient partnership between people and dogs is struggling to meet modern day needs, with demand exceeding our capacity to safely breed high-performing and healthy dogs. New statistical genetic approaches and genomic technology have the potential to revolutionize dog breeding, by transitioning from problematic phenotypic selection to methods that can preserve genetic diversity while increasing the proportion of successful dogs. To fully utilize this technology will require ultra large datasets, with hundreds of thousands of dogs. Today, dog breeders struggle to apply even the tools available now, stymied by the need for sophisticated data storage infrastructure and expertise in statistical genetics. Here, we review recent advances in animal breeding, and how a new approach to dog breeding would address the needs of working dog breeders today while also providing them with a path to realizing the next generation of technology. We provide a step-by-step guide for dog breeders to start implementing estimated breeding value selection in their programs now, and we describe how genotyping and DNA sequencing data, as it becomes more widely available, can be integrated into this approach. Finally, we call for data sharing among dog breeding programs as a path to achieving a future that can benefit all dogs, and their human partners too.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances L. Chen
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Cellular Longevity, Inc., San Francisco, CA, United States
| | | | - Jessica P. Hekman
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Kathryn A. Lord
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Brittney Logan
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Jane Russenberger
- Guiding Eyes for the Blind, Yorktown Heights, NY, United States
- International Working Dog Breeding Association, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Eldin A. Leighton
- International Working Dog Breeding Association, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Canine Genetic Services, LLC, Watertown, CT, United States
| | - Elinor K. Karlsson
- Vertebrate Genomics, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
- Darwin's Ark Foundation, Seattle, WA, United States
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McMichael MA, Singletary M. Assistance, Service, Emotional Support, and Therapy Dogs. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2021; 51:961-973. [PMID: 34059267 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2021.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This article focuses on the areas where harnessing the canine's trainability, mobility, and sociability enables their use for aiding and augmenting humans. This area, which is rapidly expanding, has provided life-changing solutions for persons affected by various impairments and disabilities (eg, visual, hearing, physical, mental).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen A McMichael
- Emergency & Critical Care, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA; Carle-Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois.
| | - Melissa Singletary
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, Auburn College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, 109 Greene Hall, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Ghai JL, Lehr DH, Harayama NE, Spooner F, Protopopova A. Animal-assisted Interventions as an Adjunct to ABA Services: Clinician Practices and Perceptions. Behav Anal Pract 2021; 15:659-676. [DOI: 10.1007/s40617-021-00605-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Rodriguez KE, LaFollette MR, Hediger K, Ogata N, O’Haire ME. Defining the PTSD Service Dog Intervention: Perceived Importance, Usage, and Symptom Specificity of Psychiatric Service Dogs for Military Veterans. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1638. [PMID: 32849004 PMCID: PMC7396623 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Research suggests that psychiatric service dogs may be an effective complementary treatment option for military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Although this practice continues to increase in popularity and research has reached the rigor of clinical trials, the components of the PTSD service dog intervention remain largely undefined. This research aimed to (1) quantify the importance, usage, and PTSD symptom specificity of service dog trained and untrained behaviors, (2) explore how PTSD severity, time since receiving the service dog, and the veteran-dog relationship relate to outcomes, and (3) compare expectations of veterans on the waitlist to experiences of veterans with service dogs. In a cross-sectional design, 217 post-9/11 military veterans with PTSD were recruited from a national service dog provider, including n = 134 with a service dog and n = 83 on the waitlist. Results showed that the service dog's trained tasks of calming and interrupting anxiety were perceived as the most important for veterans' PTSD, the most frequently used in a typical day, and as helping the most PTSD symptoms. Trained tasks were most helpful to the PTSD symptoms of hypervigilance and intrusion, and least helpful toward the symptoms of amnesia and risk-taking. Although all trained tasks were helpful toward PTSD symptoms, veterans rated the service dog's untrained behaviors on average as more important for their PTSD. After controlling for covariates, there was no relationship between a veteran's PTSD severity and perceived importance or frequency of task use. However, veterans who reported feeling closer to their service dogs reported using trained tasks more often, and veterans who had their service dogs for longer reported using trained tasks less often. Finally, veterans on the waitlist reported higher expectations regarding task use and importance than described by veterans with a service dog. In conclusion, findings describe the core components of the PTSD service dog intervention by quantifying the use and value of trained and untrained dog behaviors. Overall, this study helps explain the PTSD service dog's clinically relevant value while contributing to the scientific understanding of this emerging practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerri E. Rodriguez
- Center for the Human-Animal Bond, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Megan R. LaFollette
- Center for the Human-Animal Bond, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Department of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Karin Hediger
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Niwako Ogata
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Marguerite E. O’Haire
- Center for the Human-Animal Bond, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
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