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Zhu H, Sakai T, Doi H, Yamaguchi K, Yamada A, Takatani T, Arakawa O. Tetrodotoxin/Saxitoxin Accumulation Profile in the Euryhaline Marine Pufferfish Chelonodontops patoca. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 16:18. [PMID: 38251235 PMCID: PMC10820246 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Marine Takifugu pufferfish, which naturally possess tetrodotoxins (TTXs), selectively take up and accumulate TTXs, whereas freshwater Pao pufferfish, which naturally possess saxitoxins (STXs), selectively take up and accumulate STXs. To further clarify the TTXs/STXs selectivity in pufferfish, we conducted a TTX/STX administration experiment using Chelonodontops patoca, a euryhaline marine pufferfish possessing both TTXs and STXs. Forty nontoxic cultured individuals of C. patoca were divided into a seawater group (SW, acclimated/reared at 33‱ salinity; n = 20) and a brackish water group (BW, acclimated/reared at 8‱ salinity; n = 20). An aqueous TTX/STX mixture was intrarectally administered (both at 7.5 nmol/fish), and five individuals/group were analyzed after 1-48 h. Instrumental toxin analyses revealed that both TTX and STX were taken up, transferred, and retained, but more STX than TTX was retained in both groups. TTX gradually decreased and eventually became almost undetectable in the intestinal tissue, while STX was retained at ~5-10% of the dose level, and only STX showed transient transfer in the liver. The BW group showed a faster decrease/disappearance of TTX, greater STX retention in the intestine, and greater STX transient transfer to the liver. Thus, C. patoca appears to more easily accumulate STXs than TTXs, especially under hypoosmotic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongchen Zhu
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (T.S.); (K.Y.); (A.Y.); (T.T.)
| | - Takashi Sakai
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (T.S.); (K.Y.); (A.Y.); (T.T.)
| | - Hiroyuki Doi
- Nifrel, Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan, 2-1, Senribanpakukoen, Suita, Osaka 565-0826, Japan;
| | - Kenichi Yamaguchi
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (T.S.); (K.Y.); (A.Y.); (T.T.)
| | - Akinori Yamada
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (T.S.); (K.Y.); (A.Y.); (T.T.)
| | - Tomohiro Takatani
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (T.S.); (K.Y.); (A.Y.); (T.T.)
| | - Osamu Arakawa
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (T.S.); (K.Y.); (A.Y.); (T.T.)
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Chen J, Noorlander A, Wesseling S, Bouwmeester H, Kramer NI, Rietjens IMCM. Integrating In Vitro Data and Physiologically Based Kinetic Modeling to Predict and Compare Acute Neurotoxic Doses of Saxitoxin in Rats, Mice, and Humans. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 37478462 PMCID: PMC10399293 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Current climate trends are likely to expand the geographic distribution of the toxigenic microalgae and concomitant phycotoxins, making intoxications by such toxins a global phenomenon. Among various phycotoxins, saxitoxin (STX) acts as a neurotoxin that might cause severe neurological symptoms in mammals following consumptions of contaminated seafood. To derive a point of departure (POD) for human health risk assessment upon acute neurotoxicity induced by oral STX exposure, a physiologically based kinetic (PBK) modeling-facilitated quantitative in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (QIVIVE) approach was employed. The PBK models for rats, mice, and humans were built using parameters from the literature, in vitro experiments, and in silico predictions. Available in vitro toxicity data for STX were converted to in vivo dose-response curves via the PBK models established for these three species, and POD values were derived from the predicted curves and compared to reported in vivo toxicity data. Interspecies differences in acute STX toxicity between rodents and humans were found, and they appeared to be mainly due to differences in toxicokinetics. The described approach resulted in adequate predictions for acute oral STX exposure, indicating that new approach methodologies, when appropriately integrated, can be used in a 3R-based chemical risk assessment paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqi Chen
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Annelies Noorlander
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Sebastiaan Wesseling
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Bouwmeester
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Nynke I Kramer
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Stippeneng 4, Wageningen, Gelderland 6708 WE, The Netherlands
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Kang HM, Lee J, Lee YJ, Park Y, Lee E, Shin AY, Han J, Lee HS, Lee JS, Lee KW. Transcriptional and toxic responses to saxitoxin exposure in the marine copepod Tigriopus japonicus. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 309:136464. [PMID: 36122751 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) is a highly toxic marine neurotoxin produced by phytoplankton and a growing threat to ecosystems worldwide due to the spread of toxic algae. Although STX is an established sodium channel blocker, the overall profile of transcriptional levels in STX-exposed organisms has yet to be described. Here, we describe a toxicity assay and transcriptome analysis of the copepod Tigriopus japonicus exposed to STX. The half-maximal lethal concentration of STX was 12.35 μM, and a rapid mortality slope was evident at concentrations between 12 and 13 μM. STX induced changes in swimming behavior among the copepods after 10 min of exposure. In transcriptome analysis, gene ontology revealed that the genes involved in nervous system and gene expression were highly enriched. In addition, the congenital neurological disorder and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2-mediated oxidative stress pathways were identified to be the most significant in network analysis and toxicity pathway analysis, respectively. This study provides valuable information about the effects of STX and related transcriptional responses in T. japonicus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Min Kang
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Jihoon Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Yeon-Ju Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Yeun Park
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Euihyeon Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - A-Young Shin
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Jeonghoon Han
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Hyi-Seung Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Jong Seok Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea
| | - Kyun-Woo Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Busan, 49111, South Korea.
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Alejandra Buenrostro-Silva, Jesús García-Grajales, Petra Sánchez-Nava, María de Lourdes Ruíz-Gómez. Paresis as a limiting factor in the reproductive efficiency of a nesting colony of Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829) in La Escobilla beach, Oaxaca, Mexico. JOURNAL OF THREATENED TAXA 2022. [DOI: 10.11609/jott.7959.14.11.22133-22138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rear flippers are crucial in the nesting process of Olive Ridley Turtles Lepidochelys olivacea, so any impact on them could constitute a limiting factor in reproductive efficiency. Muscle weakness of the rear legs has been observed in some nesting females on La Escobilla beach in Oaxaca state, Mexico; however, this disorder has not been sufficiently researched. The aim of this study was to identify and describe this problem in a nesting colony of L. olivacea in La Escobilla. We obtained the biochemical profiles of eight females with clinical signs of muscle weakness of the rear legs, that could not build the incubation chamber for their nest. In order to compare their blood characteristics, we selected eight seemingly healthy turtles that successfully built their nests, laid eggs through oviposition and covered the nest. We found no significant differences in most of the blood parameters, except for Creatinine-Kinase (CK). Female turtles with muscle weakness presented significantly higher concentrations of CK (t = 2.1448, d.f. = 2, P <0.0001) when compared to the healthy turtles. CK is an appropriate enzyme for identifying the integrity of the muscle cell and is a muscle damage indicator. Our hypothesis is that the paresis observed in the rear legs of the female turtles in La Escobilla could be a chronic debilitation caused by a gradual exposure to biotoxins such as saxitoxins.
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LP-55 Phylogeny and Toxin Profile of Two Cambodian Freshwater Pufferfish Species of the Genus Pao. Toxicol Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.07.791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Tetrodotoxin/Saxitoxins Selectivity of the Euryhaline Freshwater Pufferfish Dichotomyctere fluviatilis. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13100731. [PMID: 34679024 PMCID: PMC8540976 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study evaluated differences in the tetrodotoxin (TTX)/saxitoxins (STXs) selectivity between marine and freshwater pufferfish by performing in vivo and in vitro experiments. In the in vivo experiment, artificially reared nontoxic euryhaline freshwater pufferfish Dichotomyctere fluviatilis were intrarectally administered a mixture of TTX (24 nmol/fish) and STX (20 nmol/fish). The amount of toxin in the intestine, liver, muscle, gonads, and skin was quantified at 24, 48, and 72 h. STX was detected in the intestine over a long period of time, with some (2.7-6.1% of the given dose) being absorbed into the body and temporarily located in the liver. Very little TTX was retained in the body. In the in vitro experiments, slices of intestine, liver, and skin tissue prepared from artificially reared nontoxic D. fluviatilis and the marine pufferfish Takifugu rubripes were incubated in buffer containing TTX and STXs (20 nmol/mL each) for up to 24 or 72 h, and the amount of toxin taken up in the tissue was quantified over time. In contrast to T. rubripes, the intestine, liver, and skin tissues of D. fluviatilis selectively took up only STXs. These findings indicate that the TTX/STXs selectivity differs between freshwater and marine pufferfish.
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Kershaw JL, Jensen SK, McConnell B, Fraser S, Cummings C, Lacaze JP, Hermann G, Bresnan E, Dean KJ, Turner AD, Davidson K, Hall AJ. Toxins from harmful algae in fish from Scottish coastal waters. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 105:102068. [PMID: 34303514 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal bloom events are increasing in a number of water bodies around the world with significant economic impacts on the aquaculture, fishing and tourism industries. As well as their potential impacts on human health, toxin exposure from harmful algal blooms (HABs) has resulted in widespread morbidity and mortality in marine life, including top marine predators. There is therefore a need for an improved understanding of the trophic transfer, and persistence of toxins in marine food webs. For the first time, the concentrations of two toxin groups of commercial and environmental importance, domoic acid (DA) and saxitoxin (including Paralytic Shellfish Toxin (PST) analogues), were measured in the viscera of 40 different fish species caught in Scotland between February and November, 2012 to 2019. Overall, fish had higher concentrations of DA compared to PSTs, with a peak in the summer / autumn months. Whole fish concentrations were highest in pelagic species including Atlantic mackerel and herring, key forage fish for marine predators including seals, cetaceans and seabirds. The highest DA concentrations were measured along the east coast of Scotland and in Orkney. PSTs showed highest concentrations in early summer, consistent with phytoplankton bloom timings. The detection of multiple toxins in such a range of demersal, pelagic and benthic fish prey species suggests that both the fish, and by extension, piscivorous marine predators, experience multiple routes of toxin exposure. Risk assessment models to understand the impacts of exposure to HAB toxins on marine predators therefore need to consider how chronic, low-dose exposure to multiple toxins, as well as acute exposure during a bloom, could lead to potential long-term health effects ultimately contributing to mortalities. The potential synergistic, neurotoxic and physiological effects of long-term exposure to multiple toxins require investigation in order to appropriately assess the risks of HAB toxins to fish as well as their predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna L Kershaw
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, KY16 8LB, UK; School of Biological and Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Silje-Kristin Jensen
- The Norwegian Directorate of Fisheries, Kystens Hus, Stortorget 1A, 9008 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Bernie McConnell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Shaun Fraser
- NAFC Marine Centre, University of the Highlands and Islands, Port Arthur, Scalloway, Shetland, ZE1 0UN, UK
| | - Caroline Cummings
- US Fish and Wildlife Service Alaska Region, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska, USA, 99503
| | | | | | - Eileen Bresnan
- Marine Laboratory, Marine Scotland Science, Aberdeen, AB119DB, UK
| | - Karl J Dean
- Cefas, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Cefas, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Keith Davidson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, UK
| | - Ailsa J Hall
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, KY16 8LB, UK
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Zhu H, Yamada A, Goto Y, Horn L, Ngy L, Wada M, Doi H, Lee JS, Takatani T, Arakawa O. Phylogeny and Toxin Profile of Freshwater Pufferfish (Genus Pao) Collected from 2 Different Regions in Cambodia. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110689. [PMID: 33143288 PMCID: PMC7694119 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The species classification of Cambodian freshwater pufferfish is incomplete and confusing, and scientific information on their toxicity and toxin profile is limited. In the present study, to accumulate information on the phylogeny and toxin profile of freshwater pufferfish, and to contribute to food safety in Cambodia, we conducted simultaneous genetic-based phylogenetic and toxin analyses using freshwater pufferfish individuals collected from Phnom Penh and Kratie (designated PNH and KTI, respectively). Phylogenetic analysis of partial sequences of three mitochondrial genes (cytochrome b, 16S rRNA, and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) determined for each fish revealed that PNH and KTI are different species in the genus Pao (designated Pao sp. A and Pao sp. B, respectively). A partial sequence of the nuclear tributyltin-binding protein type 2 (TBT-bp2) gene differentiated the species at the amino acid level. Instrumental analysis of the toxin profile revealed that both Pao sp. A and Pao sp. B possess saxitoxins (STXs), comprising STX as the main component. In Pao sp. A, the toxin concentration in each tissue was extremely high, far exceeding the regulatory limit for STXs set by the Codex Committee, whereas in Pao sp. B, only the skin contained high toxin concentrations. The difference in the STX accumulation ability between the two species with different TBT-bp2 sequences suggests that TBT-bp2 is involved in STX accumulation in freshwater pufferfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongchen Zhu
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (A.Y.); (M.W.); (T.T.)
| | - Akinori Yamada
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (A.Y.); (M.W.); (T.T.)
| | - Yui Goto
- Faculty of Fisheries, Nagasaki University. 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan;
| | - Linan Horn
- University of Kratie, Orussey District, Kratie Province, Cambodia; (L.H.); (L.N.)
| | - Laymithuna Ngy
- University of Kratie, Orussey District, Kratie Province, Cambodia; (L.H.); (L.N.)
| | - Minoru Wada
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (A.Y.); (M.W.); (T.T.)
| | - Hiroyuki Doi
- Nifrel, Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan. 2-1, Senribanpakukoen, Suita, Osaka 565-0826, Japan;
| | - Jong Soo Lee
- College of Marine Science, Gyeongsang National University, 2, Tongyeonghaean-ro, Tongyeong, Kyungnam 53064, Korea;
| | - Tomohiro Takatani
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (A.Y.); (M.W.); (T.T.)
| | - Osamu Arakawa
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-14, Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan; (H.Z.); (A.Y.); (M.W.); (T.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-95-819-2844
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Brown TW, Lacqua AJ, Maryon DF, Sansur AD. Caribbean Sharp-nosed Pufferfish (Tetraodontidae: Canthigaster rostrata) Tetrodotoxin Poisoning in Two Dogs in Honduras. CARIBB J SCI 2020. [DOI: 10.18475/cjos.v50i2.a3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tom W. Brown
- Kanahau Utila Research & Conservation Facility, Isla de Utila, Islas de la Bahía, Honduras
| | - Andrew J. Lacqua
- Animal Awareness Abroad Foundation Incorporated, Staten Island, New York, U.S.A
| | - Daisy F. Maryon
- Kanahau Utila Research & Conservation Facility, Isla de Utila, Islas de la Bahía, Honduras
| | - Ana D. Sansur
- Kanahau Utila Research & Conservation Facility, Isla de Utila, Islas de la Bahía, Honduras
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Co-Occurrence of Tetrodotoxin and Saxitoxins and Their Intra-Body Distribution in the Pufferfish Canthigaster valentini. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12070436. [PMID: 32635254 PMCID: PMC7405003 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Pufferfish of the family Tetraodontidae possess tetrodotoxin (TTX) and/or saxitoxins (STXs), but the toxin ratio differs, depending on the genus or species. In the present study, to clarify the distribution profile of TTX and STXs in Tetraodontidae, we investigated the composition and intra-body distribution of the toxins in Canthigaster valentini. C. valentini specimens (four male and six female) were collected from Amami-Oshima Island, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan, and the toxins were extracted from the muscle, liver, intestine, gallbladder, gonads, and skin. Analysis of the extracts for TTX by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and of STXs by high-performance liquid chromatography with post-column fluorescence derivatization revealed TTX, as well as a large amount of STXs, with neoSTX as the main component and dicarbamoylSTX and STX itself as minor components, in the skin and ovary. The toxins were also detected in the other tissues, but in much lower amounts than in the skin and ovary. The TTX/STX ratio varied greatly, depending on the tissue, but TTX was the major toxin component in the whole body, and STXs accounted for 25% and 13% of the total toxin amount in males and females, respectively. Like the marine pufferfish of the genus Arothron, C. valentini should be considered a pufferfish with considerable amounts of both TTX and STXs present simultaneously.
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