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Cassady KR, Minter LJ, Gruber EJ. Performance of a manually operated salad spinner centrifuge for serum separation in the healthy domestic horse (Equus caballus) and southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). Vet Clin Pathol 2023; 52:628-637. [PMID: 37495543 DOI: 10.1111/vcp.13290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Field veterinarians and researchers studying wild species, such as the southern white rhinoceros, often work in remote areas with limited access to standard laboratory equipment, hindering the ability to measure serum analytes. OBJECTIVES The first objective was to produce an inexpensive, manually operated centrifuge that could accept standard laboratory tubes by modifying a consumer-grade salad spinner with low-cost materials. The second objective was to compare biochemistry analysis results obtained from equine and southern white rhinoceros serum separated by traditional laboratory and manual salad spinner centrifugation. METHODS We optimized the design and serum separation protocol using non-anticoagulated equine blood. Equine and rhinoceros serum samples were separated by manual salad spinner or traditional laboratory centrifugation. Measured analytes included sodium, potassium, chloride, urea nitrogen, creatinine, phosphorous, total calcium, magnesium, glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, creatinine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, total bilirubin, bicarbonate, sorbitol dehydrogenase, and triglycerides. Results obtained from serum separated by each centrifugation technique were compared by Deming regression and Bland-Altman analyses. RESULTS A tube adaptor insert modeled after a swing angle rotor and a two-step salad spinner centrifugation yielded serum comparable to traditional laboratory centrifugation. For the majority of analytes, no proportional or constant biases were detected between centrifugation methods. A positive proportional bias in the measurement of ALP in serum separated by manual centrifugation was detected in both equine and rhinoceros samples. CONCLUSIONS Manual centrifugation with a modified salad spinner yields diagnostic quality serum suitable for the measurement of most standard biochemistry analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R Cassady
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Larry J Minter
- Hanes Veterinary Medical Center, North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC, USA
| | - Erika J Gruber
- Department of Population Medicine and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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Sharaf MS, Othman AA, Abdel-Ghaffar AE, Ali DM, Eid MM. Crusted scabies in a rabbit model: a severe skin disease or more? Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:413. [PMID: 37964301 PMCID: PMC10647032 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05995-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Around 200-300 million people are estimated to be affected by scabies annually worldwide. However, the mechanisms by which this disease may affect the general condition of the host are not entirely clear. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the systemic changes that may accompany crusted scabies in both treated and non-treated experimental animals. METHODS Male New Zealand rabbits were infected with Sarcoptes scabiei var. cuniculi and divided into the following three groups: control, ivermectin-treated, and fluralaner-treated. Several methods were used to evaluate the systemic changes, including histopathological examination of the liver, kidney, heart, and spleen, as well as the measurement of serum biochemical parameters and immunological parameters. RESULTS Several definite structural and functional changes at the systemic level were revealed, as evidenced by the observed histopathological changes in the tissue sections of internal organs and the highly significant increases in markers of systemic inflammation, serum procalcitonin, and oxidative stress markers. Abnormalities in the liver and renal function results, as well as in the serum lipid profile, were also noted. Additionally, a disorganized immune response was noted, evidenced by a mixed type 1 and type 2 helper T cell response. Although there was notable clinical and parasitological cure in the ivermectin-treated group, the histopathological, biochemical, and immunological markers indicated incomplete resolution. In contrast, the fluralaner-treated group exhibited a nearly complete resolution of changes in these parameters. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that crusted scabies is a systemic syndrome that can affect several organs besides the skin. Inflammation, oxidative stress, and possibly bacterial infections, are all implicated as underlying mechanisms of tissue damage due to the disease. We recommend that fluralaner, a promising scabicidal agent, should be studied for possible human use, and especially for control programs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ahmad Ali Othman
- Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | | | - Dareen Mohamed Ali
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Mahmoud Eid
- Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
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Steyrer C, Miller M, Hewlett J, Buss P, Hooijberg EH. Markers of inflammation in free-living African elephants (Loxodonta africana): Reference intervals and diagnostic performance of acute phase reactants. Vet Clin Pathol 2023; 52 Suppl 1:75-86. [PMID: 36303463 DOI: 10.1111/vcp.13197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Acute phase reactants (APRs) have not been investigated in free-living African elephants (Loxodonta africana), and there is little information about negative APRs albumin and serum iron in elephants. OBJECTIVES We aimed to generate reference intervals (RIs) for APRs for free-living African elephants, and to determine the diagnostic performance of APRs in apparently healthy elephants and elephants with inflammatory lesions. METHODS Stored serum samples from 49 apparently healthy and 16 injured free-living elephants were used. The following APRs and methods were included: albumin, bromocresol green; haptoglobin, colorimetric assay; serum amyloid A (SAA), multispecies immunoturbidometric assay, and serum iron with ferrozine method. Reference intervals were generated using the nonparametric method. Indices of diagnostic accuracy were determined by receiver-operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. RESULTS Reference intervals were: albumin 41-55 g/L, haptoglobin 0.16-3.51 g/L, SAA < 10 mg/L, and serum iron 8.60-16.99 μmol/L. Serum iron and albumin concentrations were lower and haptoglobin and SAA concentrations were higher in the injured group. Serum iron had the best ability to predict health or inflammation, followed by haptoglobin, SAA, and albumin, with the area under the ROC curve ranging from 0.88-0.93. CONCLUSIONS SAA concentrations were lower in healthy African vs Asian elephants, and species-specific RIs should be used. Serum iron was determined to be a diagnostically useful negative APR which should be added to APR panels for elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Steyrer
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies and Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Michele Miller
- Department of Science and Innovation-National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jennie Hewlett
- Department of Production Animal Studies and Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Peter Buss
- Department of Production Animal Studies and Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Veterinary Wildlife Services, South African National Parks, South Africa
| | - Emma H Hooijberg
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies and Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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Hooijberg EH, Cray C. Acute phase reactants in nondomesticated mammals-A veterinary clinical pathology perspective. Vet Clin Pathol 2023; 52 Suppl 1:19-36. [PMID: 36289012 DOI: 10.1111/vcp.13189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Applications for acute phase reactants (APRs) in nondomesticated mammals include identifying inflammatory disease, monitoring the course of specific disease processes and recovery during rehabilitation, detecting preclinical or subclinical disease, being used as bioindicators for monitoring population and ecosystem health, and as markers of stress and animal welfare. Serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, albumin, and iron are most commonly measured. The procedure for evaluating an APR in a nondomesticated mammalian species should follow a stepwise approach beginning with an assessment of analytical performance, followed by an evaluation of overlap performance, clinical performance, and impact on patient outcomes and management. The lack of species-specific standards and antibodies for nondomesticated mammals presents a challenge, and more attention needs to be focused on assessing cross-reactivity and ensuring adequate analytical performance of APR assays. Sample selection for the initial evaluation of APRs should consider preanalytical influences and should originate from animals with confirmed inflammatory disease and healthy animals. Reference intervals should be generated according to published guidelines. Further evaluation should focus on assessing the diagnostic utility of APRs in specific disease scenarios relevant to a species. Greater attention should be paid to assay performance and uniformity of methods when using APRs for population and ecosystem surveillance. Veterinary clinical pathologists should work closely with zoo veterinarians and wildlife researchers to optimize the accuracy and utility of APR measurements in these various conservation medicine scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma H Hooijberg
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies and Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Carolyn Cray
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
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Prenatal thermal stress affects acute-phase proteins, heat shock protein 70, and circulating corticosterone in developing broiler embryos and neonates. J Therm Biol 2022; 109:103328. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2022.103328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Leiberich M, Pohlin F, Hooijberg EH, Hofmeyr M, Cooper D, Reuben M, Meyer LCR. The effects of feeding and transport length on the welfare of white rhinoceroses (
Ceratotherium simum simum
) during long-distance translocations: a preliminary study. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2022; 93:131-138. [DOI: 10.36303/jsava.480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M Leiberich
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
| | - F Pohlin
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
- Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna,
Austria
| | - EH Hooijberg
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
| | - M Hofmeyr
- Great Plains Conservation and Rhinos Without Borders,
Botswana
- Rhino Recovery Fund/Wildlife Conservation Network and Oak Foundation,
United Kingdom
| | - D Cooper
- Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife,
South Africa
| | - M Reuben
- Department of Wildlife and National Parks,
Botswana
| | - LCR Meyer
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Research, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria,
South Africa
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ASSESSMENT OF CAPILLARY ZONE ELECTROPHORESIS AND SERUM AMYLOID A QUANTITATION IN CLINICALLY NORMAL AND ABNORMAL SOUTHERN WHITE RHINOCEROS ( CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM SIMUM) AND SOUTHERN BLACK RHINOCEROS ( DICEROS BICORNIS MINOR). J Zoo Wildl Med 2022; 53:319-330. [PMID: 35758573 DOI: 10.1638/2021-0072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) and an immunoassay for serum amyloid A (SAA) were used to examine serum samples from clinically normal and abnormal southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) and southern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor) under managed care. CZE resolved seven fractions as well as subfractions for α1 globulins. Reference intervals were calculated for white rhinoceros (n = 33) and found to have some differences over previously reported intervals generated using agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE) methods in sera from free-ranging animals. In addition, the coefficient of variation related to fraction quantitation was found to be overlapping or superior to that reported for AGE. No significant differences were observed in CZE measurands and total protein between clinically normal and abnormal rhinoceros. In contrast to CZE, significant differences in SAA levels (P < 0.001) were observed in samples from the white rhinoceros between clinically normal and abnormal animals. In addition, in limited sample sets with repeated measures, SAA provided prognostic value. Future studies should generate more robust reference intervals and delineate the application of both SAA quantitation and CZE in routine health assessments and in prognostication.
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DEVELOPMENT OF A QUANTITATIVE IMMUNOASSAY FOR SERUM HAPTOGLOBIN AS A PUTATIVE DISEASE MARKER IN THE SOUTHERN WHITE RHINOCEROS (CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM SIMUM). J Zoo Wildl Med 2022; 53:141-152. [DOI: 10.1638/2020-0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Cray C. Protein electrophoresis of non-traditional species: A review. Vet Clin Pathol 2021; 50:478-494. [PMID: 34881455 DOI: 10.1111/vcp.13067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
EPH has been demonstrated to be a useful tool in companion animals while providing an opportunity to characterize globulinemias, including paraproteinemia. In EPH of non-traditional species, these same applications are important, but the primary use is to gauge the acute-phase and humoral immune responses. This includes the valid quantitation of albumin as well as the examination of fractions reflective of increases in acute-phase reactants and immunoglobulins. Agarose gel EPH and, more recently, capillary zone EPH have been applied to samples from these species. Performing these analyses provides special challenges in the placement of fraction delimits, generation of RIs, and interpretation of results. Recommended as part of routine bloodwork, EPH can also provide key results that are helpful in clinical and field-based health assessments as well as in prognostication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Cray
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
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10
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Bartlett SL, Lamberski N, Arheart KL, Cray C. Protein Electrophoresis and Haptoglobin Values for Captive Bongo ( Tragelaphus eurycerus). Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:646500. [PMID: 33996975 PMCID: PMC8113405 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.646500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Serum samples collected from 37 clinically normal bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) and 13 abnormal bongo were tested using assays for acute-phase proteins (APPs) and by protein electrophoresis. Abnormal bongo samples (n = 27) had significantly higher levels of fibrinogen (FIB) (p < 0.001) and trending but not significantly increased haptoglobin (HP) (p = 0.07) vs. samples from normal bongo (n = 37). There were no significant differences in values for total white blood cell counts or for any of the fractions determined by protein electrophoresis. Clinically normal female bongo (n = 19) had significantly lower levels of FIB than normal males (n = 18) (p = 0.014), and this observation was also made with samples from the clinically abnormal group (p = 0.004). Many weak to moderate significant correlations were observed with increasing age, including increased globulins, FIB, and HP and decreased albumin-to-globulin (A/G) ratio and albumin. In clinical cases reviewed in this study, mild HP changes categorized this reactant as a minor APP, which contrasts with the major APP classification of HP in the related species of the cow. The preliminary data indicate that the quantitation of these APPs may offer value in assessing inflammation in this species, but additional studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan L Bartlett
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Zoological Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
| | | | - Kristopher L Arheart
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Carolyn Cray
- Division of Comparative Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
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Gardner BR, Rourke NL. Multimodal analgesia in a Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) with pentosan polysulfate, gabapentin, amantadine and phenylbutazone to manage chronic pain. Aust Vet J 2021; 99:86-88. [PMID: 33398883 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A 38-year-old white rhinoceros bull (Ceratotherium simum) was treated with phenylbutazone over a period of four years for chronic osteoarthritic and neuropathic pain of the thoracic limbs. Initially the lameness was sporadic and responded well to phenylbutazone (4 mg/kg PO SID). The lameness increased in severity during the winter months. Four years after treatment was initiated, there was an increase in the severity and incidence of the lameness. Analgesia was augmented by the addition of non-conventional analgesic drugs. Pentosan polysulfate was administered IM at 3 mg/kg once a week for two treatments and thereafter monthly when possible. Gabapentin was used at 8 mg/kg but produced ataxia and anorexia. The dose was reduced to 4-5 mg/kg PO SID. Amantadine (3 mg/kg PO BID) was added to the multimodal analgesia and produced a significant improvement in the clinical lameness. Chronic inflammation was monitored using both automated and manual fibrinogen methods. Eventually the rhinoceros was euthanized on humane grounds when treatment was unable to produce suitable clinical relief.
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Gardner
- Werribee Open Range Zoo, Veterinary Hospital, Werribee, Victoria, 3030, Australia
| | - N L Rourke
- Werribee Open Range Zoo, Veterinary Hospital, Werribee, Victoria, 3030, Australia
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Pohlin F, Hooijberg EH, Buss P, Huber N, Viljoen FP, Blackhurst D, Meyer LCR. A Comparison of Hematological, Immunological, and Stress Responses to Capture and Transport in Wild White Rhinoceros Bulls ( Ceratotherium simum simum) Supplemented With Azaperone or Midazolam. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:569576. [PMID: 33195552 PMCID: PMC7606872 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.569576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Capture and transport are essential procedures for the management and conservation of southern white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum simum), but are associated with stress-induced morbidity and mortality. To improve conservation efforts, it is crucial to understand the pathophysiology of rhinoceros stress responses and investigate drug combinations that could reduce these responses. In this study we measured rhinoceros stress responses to capture and transport by quantifying hematological and immunological changes together with adrenal hormone concentrations. We investigated whether the potent anxiolytic drug midazolam was able to mitigate these responses compared to azaperone, which is more commonly used during rhinoceros transport. Twenty three wild white rhinoceros bulls were transported for 6 h (280 km) within the Kruger National Park for reasons unrelated to this study. Rhinoceroses were immobilized with either etorphine-azaperone (group A, n = 11) or etorphine-midazolam (group M, n = 12) intramuscularly by darting from a helicopter. Azaperone (group A) or midazolam (group M) were re-administered intramuscularly every 2 h during transport. Serial blood samples were collected at capture (TC), the start of transport (T0) and after 6 h of transport (T6). Changes in hematological and immunological variables over time and between groups were compared using general mixed models. Increases in plasma epinephrine and serum cortisol concentrations indicated that rhinoceroses mounted a stress response to capture and transport. Packed cell volume decreased from TC to T6 indicating that stress hemoconcentration occurred at TC. Neutrophils progressively increased and lymphocytes and eosinophils progressively decreased from T0 to T6, resulting in an increase in neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio; a characteristic leukocyte response to circulating glucocorticoids. A reduction in serum iron concentrations may suggest the mounting of an acute phase response. Rhinoceroses experienced a decrease in unsaturated fatty acids and an increase in lipid peroxidation products at capture and toward the end of transport indicating oxidative stress. Midazolam, at the dose used in this study, was not able to mitigate adrenal responses to stress and appeared to directly influence leukocyte responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friederike Pohlin
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Emma H. Hooijberg
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Peter Buss
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Veterinary Wildlife Services, Kruger National Park, South African National Parks, Skukuza, South Africa
| | - Nikolaus Huber
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Francois P. Viljoen
- Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy and Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Dee Blackhurst
- Division of Chemical Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Leith C. R. Meyer
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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