Who Has Access to Livestock Vaccines? Using the Social-Ecological Model and Intersectionality Frameworks to Identify the Social Barriers to Peste des Petits Ruminants Vaccines in Karamoja, Uganda

Gender transformative innovation: Women's inclusion in livestock vaccine systems in northern Ghana

CONTEXT

Owning livestock can support women's empowerment and progress toward gender-equitable agri-food systems. Gender inequality, however, can reduce women's ownership of livestock and access to animal vaccines. Gender accommodative approaches (GAAs), and more recently gender transformative approaches (GTAs), are increasingly implemented in development interventions. However, their impact on women's empowerment has not been systematically tested. Here, we describe the 'Women Rear Project', implemented in northern Ghana between 2019 and 2023, and assess the impact of GTAs and GAAs on women's empowerment, ownership of livestock, and access to animal vaccines.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to systematically assess changes conferred by GAAs and GTAs on gender norms and women's empowerment and access to animal vaccines.

METHODS

Using a mixed-methods approach, in 2021 and 2023 we collected quantitative and qualitative data regarding women's empowerment, gender norms, and access to animal vaccines. Qualitative data regarding women's and men's conceptualizations of gender norms and women's empowerment were obtained via focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Quantitative survey data were obtained from 500 households, using the Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI). Quantitative data on livelihood indicators were also collected, using the Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) tool. We systematically assessed changes between baseline (2021) and endline (2023) in local conceptualizations of empowerment in the livestock sector, the effects of GTAs and GAAs on such conceptualizations, and how empowerment was experienced by women and men and the implications for women's access to animal vaccines.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Local conceptualizations of empowerment in 2021, among both women and men, emphasized financial independence, decision-making autonomy, self-reliance, and problem-solving skills. In 2023, this conceptualization of empowerment had expanded to include the ability to act without external restrictions; women were empowered by managing resources, running successful businesses, and making decisions in consultation with their husbands. Furthermore, women in communities where GTAs had been enacted scored significantly higher in empowerment compared with women in communities where only GAAs had been introduced. Gender norms impacted empowerment indicators, with respect among household members and autonomy in income both contributing to disempowerment. Gender norms also affected respondents' reporting. Women's access to livestock vaccines was more positive in GTA/GAA communities. We recommend efforts are made to reduce restrictive gender norms and enhance women's empowerment and access to resources such as animal vaccines.

SIGNIFICANCE

We offer recommendations for pathways toward women's empowerment and healthy livestock via inclusive innovations in agri-food systems.

Gender and equity considerations in AMR research: a systematic scoping review

Research on gender and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond women's biological susceptibility is limited. A gender and equity lens in AMR research is necessary to promote gender equality and support the effectiveness, uptake, and sustainability of real-world AMR solutions. We argue that it is an ethical and social justice imperative to include gender and related intersectional issues in AMR research and implementation. An intersectional exploration of the interplay between people's diverse identities and experiences, including their gender, socio-economic status, race, disability, age, and sexuality, may help us understand how these factors reinforce AMR risk and vulnerability and ensure that interventions to reduce the risk of AMR do not impact unevenly. This paper reports on the findings of a systematic scoping review on the interlinkages between AMR, gender and other socio-behavioural characteristics to identify priority knowledge gaps in human and animal health in LMICs. The review focused on peer-reviewed and grey literature published between 2017 and 2022. Three overarching themes were gendered division of caregiving roles and responsibilities, gender power relations in decision-making, and interactions between gender norms and health-seeking behaviours. Research that fails to account for gender and its intersections with other lines of disadvantage, such as race, class and ability, risks being irrelevant and will have little impact on the continued and dangerous spread of AMR. We provide recommendations for integrating an intersectional gender lens in AMR research, policy and practice.

Access to veterinary care: evaluating working definitions, barriers, and implications for animal welfare

Humans have a moral obligation to meet the physical and mental needs of the animals in their care. This requires access to resources such as veterinary care, which is integral to achieving animal welfare. However, "access" to veterinary care is not always homogenous across communities and currently lacks a consistent definition. The objectives of this scoping review were to (1) understand how "access" to veterinary care has been defined in the literature, (2) map a broad list of potential barriers that may influence access to veterinary care, and (3) identify how access to care impacts the welfare of companion and livestock animals. The literature search yielded a total of 1,044 publications, 77 of which were relevant to our inclusion criteria, and were published between 2002 and 2022. Studies were most frequently conducted in the United States (n = 17) and Canada (n = 11). Publications defining access to veterinary care (n = 10) or discussing its impacts on animal welfare (n = 13) were minimal. However, barriers to accessing veterinary care were thoroughly discussed in the literature (n = 69) and were categorized into ten themes according to common challenges and keywords, with financial limitations (n = 57), geographic location (n = 35), and limited personnel/equipment (n = 32) being the most frequently reported. The results of this scoping review informed our proposed definition of access to veterinary care. Additionally, our findings identified a need to further investigate several understudied barriers relating to access to care (i.e., veterinarian-client relationship, client identity) and to better understand how they potentially affect animal welfare outcomes.

Evaluation of livestock farmers' knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding the use of veterinary vaccines in Southwest Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

The utilization of veterinary vaccines plays a vital role in preventing and managing animal diseases. However, the success of vaccination programmes relies on livestock farmers' understanding, perspectives and behaviours regarding their application. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the knowledge, attitudes and practices of livestock farmers in Southwest Ethiopia regarding the use of veterinary vaccines.

METHODS

The study followed a cross-sectional design conducted between October 2021 and October 2022. A sample of 476 livestock-owning farmers, including those who raise dairy cattle, beef cattle and poultry, were interviewed from the districts of Shei Bench, Semen Bench, Sheko and Yeki.

RESULTS

The findings revealed that participants from Sheko, who had a poultry farm, were college graduates and resided in an urban area, were more likely to have good knowledge of veterinary vaccines. Similarly, participants who were male, from Semen Bench, had a poultry farm and had a high school education, exhibited a positive attitude towards veterinary vaccines. Furthermore, being male, from Semen Bench, having a poultry farm, and having a high school education were associated with increased veterinary vaccine use.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the importance of addressing gender differences and tailoring interventions based on geography and farming conditions in the area. These measures are crucial to improve practices related to veterinary vaccines for enhanced animal health and productivity. Prioritizing education, veterinary services and information dissemination is vital. However, further research and targeted interventions are needed to better comprehend underlying factors and implement effective strategies for diverse communities in different areas.

Access to vaccination services for priority ruminant livestock diseases in Ghana: Barriers and determinants of service utilization by farmers

INTRODUCTION

Livestock diseases are a major constraint to agricultural productivity, frequently causing significant livelihood losses for farmers, and negatively affecting public food safety and security. Vaccines provide an effective and profitable means for controlling most infectious livestock diseases, but remain underutilized. This study sought to assess the barriers and determinants of vaccination utilization for priority livestock diseases in Ghana.

METHODS

We conducted a mixed-method study involving a quantitative survey with ruminant livestock farmers (N = 350) and seven focus group discussions (FGD) involving 65 ruminant livestock farmers. The survey data were analyzed, and distribution of barriers to vaccination access described. We evaluated the determinants of vaccination utilization (any use of vaccination against contagious-bovine-pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and peste-des-petits-ruminants (PPR) in 2021) using logistic regression analyses at the 0.05 significance level. FGD transcripts were analyzed deductively. We used triangulation to achieve convergence across the different datasets and analyses.

RESULTS

The farmers kept an average (median) of 5 tropical livestock units (TLUs) of ruminant livestock (IQR=2.6-12.0) that were on average 8 kilometers (IQR=1.9-12.4) away from veterinary officers (VOs). Only 16% (56/350) of herds were vaccinated against the diseases. Most farmers (274/350) had limited knowledge on vaccines against CBPP and PPR infections, 63% (222/350) perceived low risk of these diseases to their herds. About half of farmers reported experiencing outbreaks of either disease in the study year (2021). Farmers scored on average 80.5 out of 98 (IQR=74-85) on the RS-14 resilience scale. After adjusting for farmers' livestock rearing experience, herd size, sex, wealth status, distance to VOs, previous disease outbreaks, and perceived risk of the diseases, vaccination utilization was negatively associated with limited knowledge (aOR=0.19, 95%CI=0.08-0.43), and positively associated with personal exposure to outbreaks in the study year (aOR=5.26, 95%CI=2.01-13.7) and increasing resilience (aOR=1.13, 95%CI=1.07-1.19). FGDs revealed farmer misconceptions about vaccines, costs of vaccines, and timely access to vaccines from VOs as additional barriers.

CONCLUSIONS

Acceptability, affordability, accessibility, and availability of vaccine services represent the main barriers to vaccines utilization by ruminant livestock farmers in Ghana. Given that limited knowledge regarding the value of vaccination and shortfalls in veterinary service supply are of central importance for both the demand and supply side, more collaboration between the different stakeholders in a transdisciplinary manner to effectively address the low vaccination utilization problem is needed.

Breaking institutional barriers to enhance women's participation in and benefit from the Peste des Petits Ruminants and Newcastle Disease vaccine value chains for Sembabule district of Uganda

This paper describes the institutional context that shapes the visibility and positioning of women along the Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) and Newcastle Disease (ND) vaccine value chains for Sembabule district of Uganda. It examines the institutional barriers and opportunities that affect women's empowerment derived from inclusion of women in the decision-making processes along the livestock vaccine value chain (LVVC) and that can support viable women-centered and owned enterprises, at the vaccine development, delivery, distribution and use level. Qualitative data analysis tools such as focus group discussions, focus meals, jar voices and key informant interviews were used. Using outcome mapping, a stakeholder analysis of the critical partners in the PPR and ND value chain was done involving the regulators, vaccine manufacturers, importers, distributors, agrovets, public and private veterinary service deliverers, local leaders, women groups, and farmers. The study concluded that training related to gender equality and livestock vaccines, infrastructural and technical support to the poultry and goat women and men farmers and other chain actors are inadequate in themselves to increase vaccine adoption and improve livestock productivity in Sembabule district. Strategies that promote gender-transformative collaborative efforts among the LVVC actors and build viable gender-transformed women groups and networks are critical to increase women's participation in and benefit from the livestock vaccine value chain.

Barriers to vaccine use in small ruminants and poultry in Tanzania

Vaccination is an important disease prevention and control measure; however, vaccine adoption by livestock farmers in Tanzania is still low. This cross-sectional study examined the challenges to vaccine use faced by livestock owners and animal health professionals (AHPs) in Tanzania. A questionnaire was administered to 216 households that kept small ruminants and poultry and 19 AHPs’ data were collected electronically via the survey platform Qualtrics, and descriptive statistics were performed. Households with poultry reported vaccinating mostly against Newcastle disease (91.7%), fowl pox (48.1%) and Gumboro disease (37.0%), whilst households with small ruminants reported contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (62.2%), sheep and goat pox (17.1%), foot-and-mouth disease (7.3%) and peste des petits ruminants (7.3%). The households’ decision to vaccinate was mostly influenced by knowledge of diseases (82.4%), disease history on the farm (69.4%) and vaccine price (63.4%). Most households (54.6%) experienced challenges when purchasing vaccines, including high vaccine cost (78.0%), long distance from vaccine source (61.0%) and vaccine unavailability (21.2%). The findings suggest that improving the knowledge of livestock owners regarding the priority diseases and the benefits of vaccination, establishing more vaccine suppliers, improving vaccine distribution and access and training AHPs and households on appropriate vaccine storage and handling are necessary to improve vaccine adoption and ensure vaccine quality and effectiveness.