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Chiavaccini L, Gupta A, Chiavaccini G. From facial expressions to algorithms: a narrative review of animal pain recognition technologies. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1436795. [PMID: 39086767 PMCID: PMC11288915 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1436795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Facial expressions are essential for communication and emotional expression across species. Despite the improvements brought by tools like the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) in pain recognition in horses, their reliance on human identification of characteristic traits presents drawbacks such as subjectivity, training requirements, costs, and potential bias. Despite these challenges, the development of facial expression pain scales for animals has been making strides. To address these limitations, Automated Pain Recognition (APR) powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers a promising advancement. Notably, computer vision and machine learning have revolutionized our approach to identifying and addressing pain in non-verbal patients, including animals, with profound implications for both veterinary medicine and animal welfare. By leveraging the capabilities of AI algorithms, we can construct sophisticated models capable of analyzing diverse data inputs, encompassing not only facial expressions but also body language, vocalizations, and physiological signals, to provide precise and objective evaluations of an animal's pain levels. While the advancement of APR holds great promise for improving animal welfare by enabling better pain management, it also brings forth the need to overcome data limitations, ensure ethical practices, and develop robust ground truth measures. This narrative review aimed to provide a comprehensive overview, tracing the journey from the initial application of facial expression recognition for the development of pain scales in animals to the recent application, evolution, and limitations of APR, thereby contributing to understanding this rapidly evolving field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovica Chiavaccini
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Anjali Gupta
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Merridale-Punter MS, Wiethoelter AK, El-Hage CM, Patrick C, Hitchens PL. Common clinical findings identified in working equids in low- and middle-income countries from 2005 to 2021. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0304755. [PMID: 38837970 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0304755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite several millions of working equids worldwide, there are few published studies regarding the epidemiology of their health and welfare. Data collected by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) operating in the working equid sphere therefore have important epidemiological value and could be used towards animal health surveillance. The aim of this study was to identify common clinical findings and mortality patterns of working equids in low- and middle-income countries and investigate their epidemiology using data collected from an international NGO. A retrospective analysis was conducted to determine the proportion of clinical findings and mortality risk by equid species, year and region. Negative binomial regression models were generated to investigate differences in mortality risk and proportion of key clinical findings between equid species, hemispheres and calendar month. A total of 4,313,606 presentations were reported from 14 countries between January 2005 and March 2021 (mean 22,121; SD ± 7,858 per month). Wounds and abscesses were the most reported clinical finding for all equid species (mean proportion 35%; SD ±0.19 of all findings). A higher proportion of wounds (mean proportion 41.7%; SD±0.2) was recorded in donkeys than mules or horses (P<0.001). Mules had higher reported mortality risk (1.2%; 95% CI 0.94-1.46%) than horses (0.4%; 95% CI 0.36-0.55%; p<0.001) or donkeys (0.2%; 95% CI 0.14-0.22%). Work-related wounds were the predominant finding in working equids, particularly so in donkeys. Prevention strategies should focus on improvements to work equipment and practices for all equids. Future investigations required include refinement of diagnostic approaches for donkeys and investigation of risk factors to understand the higher mortality in mules. Routine monitoring of clinical findings reported by national or international NGOs could be included in animal health surveillance strategies, although standardisation of data for this purpose is needed so that changes in prevalence following implementation of prevention strategies can be monitored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anke K Wiethoelter
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Charles M El-Hage
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Cameron Patrick
- Statistical Consulting Centre, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peta L Hitchens
- Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
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van Loon JPAM, de Grauw JC, van Dierendonck MC, Burden F, Rickards K. Objective assessment of chronic pain in donkeys using the Donkey Chronic Pain Scale. Vet Anaesth Analg 2024:S1467-2987(24)00088-6. [PMID: 39142979 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2024.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To clinically evaluate previously developed pain scales [Donkey Chronic Pain Composite Pain Scale (DCP-CPS), Donkey Chronic Pain Facial Assessment of Pain (DCP-FAP) and combined Donkey Chronic Pain Scale (DCPS)], including behavioural and facial expression-based variables, for the assessment of chronic pain in donkeys. STUDY DESIGN Prospective, blinded clinical study. ANIMAL A group of 77 donkeys (34 patients and 43 healthy control animals). METHODS Animals were assessed by two observers that were blinded to the condition of the animals. RESULTS Both DCP-CPS and DCP-FAP, and resulting combined DCPS scores, showed good interobserver reliability [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.91, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.86-0.95, p < 0.001; ICC = 0.71, CI = 0.50-0.83, p < 0.001 and ICC = 0.84, CI = 0.72-0.91, p < 0.001, respectively]. All scores (DCP-CPS, DCP-FAP and the resulting combined DCPS) were significantly higher for patients than for controls at all time points (p < 0.001 for all three scales). Sensitivity and specificity for identification of pain (cut-off value >3) was 73.0% and 65.1% for DCP-CPS, and 60.9% and 83.3% for DCP-FAP, respectively. For the combined DCPS, sensitivity was 87.0% and specificity 90.9% (cut-off value >6). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Based on behavioural and facial expression-based variables, DCPS proved a promising and reproducible tool to assess different types of chronic pain in donkeys. The combination of behavioural and facial expression-based variables showed the best discriminatory characteristics in the current study. Further studies are needed for refinement of these tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes P A M van Loon
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Sporthorse Medical Diagnostic Centre (SMDC), Heesch, The Netherlands.
| | - Janny C de Grauw
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Machteld C van Dierendonck
- Veterinary Faculty Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Veterinary Sciences Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium; Equus Research & Therapy, Stroe, The Netherlands
| | - Faith Burden
- The Donkey Sanctuary, Sidmouth, Devon, United Kingdom
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Nannarone S, Ortolani F, Scilimati N, Gialletti R, Menchetti L. Refinement and revalidation of the Equine Ophthalmic Pain Scale: R-EOPS a new scale for ocular pain assessment in horses. Vet J 2024; 304:106079. [PMID: 38360135 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2024.106079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
This study addresses the refinement and revalidation of a composite pain scale that focuses on equine facial expressions and behavioural indicators as exhibitions of ophthalmic pain. This scale included only Behavioural and Facial and Ocular expression indicators and, compared to the first version of Equine Ophthalmic Pain Scale (EOPS), item descriptors and related ratings were changed. Thirteen horses with ocular diseases that required medical or surgical treatment were enroled (group P). In each animal, the refined EOPS (R-EOPS) was applied prior to any treatment (T0) and one week later (T7). The R-EOPS was applied twice, 7 days apart, to 16 healthy control horses (group C). Two 30-second videos were recorded each time to allow the retrospective analysis by eight observers. Inter-observer reliability of items was moderate or substantial (Krippendorff's alpha, Kα>0.40) while their intra-observer reliability was substantial or almost perfect for most items (Kα ≥0.61). Both inter- and intra-observer reliability of Total Score (TS) were however excellent (Intraclass Correlation Coefficients, ICC>0.75). The TS also showed good reproducibility (Kendall coefficient=0.786, ICC=0.684) and high consistency of its items (Cronbach's α=0.847). The comparison between groups as well as the sensitivity and specificity values supported the validity of the R-EOPS. In particular, for each extra point added to the TS, the risk of the horse having pain increased by more than two times (Odds Ratio=2.079, 95%CI=1.542-2.804; P<0.001). The Receiver Operating Characteristic analysis identified 6 as the threshold value of R-EOPS for discriminating horses with ocular pathology (sensitivity=83%, specificity=100%). This scale may be an effective tool for reliably assessing the pain level in horses with ophthalmic diseases and potentially guiding pain management although it still requires large-scale application and external validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Nannarone
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 4, Perugia 06126, Italy; Department of Veterinary Medicine, CRCS (Centro di Ricerca sul Cavallo Sportivo), University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 4, Perugia 06126, Italy; Department of Veterinary Medicine, CeRiDA (Centro di Ricerca sul Dolore Animale), University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 4, Perugia 06126, Italy.
| | - F Ortolani
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 4, Perugia 06126, Italy
| | - N Scilimati
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 4, Perugia 06126, Italy
| | - R Gialletti
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 4, Perugia 06126, Italy; Department of Veterinary Medicine, CRCS (Centro di Ricerca sul Cavallo Sportivo), University of Perugia, Via San Costanzo 4, Perugia 06126, Italy
| | - L Menchetti
- School of Bioscience and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Via Circonvallazione 93/95, Matelica 62024, Italy
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Xue C, Segabinazzi L, Hall A, Dzikiti TB, French H, Gilbert R. A retrospective comparison of postoperative outcomes in ovariectomised jennies (Equus asinus) treated with phenylbutazone or flunixin meglumine. Equine Vet J 2024. [PMID: 38500306 DOI: 10.1111/evj.14082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clinically, flunixin meglumine (FM) and phenylbutazone (PBZ) are preferentially selected for the treatment of visceral and musculoskeletal pain, respectively, in horses. In donkeys, there is no information to support or refute this conventional conjecture. OBJECTIVES To compare postoperative outcomes in a group of jennies treated with intravenous FM or oral PBZ. ANIMALS Fourteen jennies unilaterally ovariectomised by standing left flank laparotomy. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. METHODS Data from medical records of ovariectomised jennies (case details, weight, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug [NSAID] protocol, surgery duration, operative sequence, anaesthesia protocol, physical examination findings and outcomes) were collected. From collated data, postoperative adverse events were defined as fever, tachycardia, tachypnea, inappetence, altered mentation, abnormal oral mucous membranes, bruxism, colic, incisional complications (i.e., drainage, oedema, peri-incisional emphysema and pain) and non-survival, then further divided into occurrence during the early (≤24 h) or late (>24 h) postoperative period for data analysis using R software. Chi-squared test was used to compare individual adverse events between groups (PBZ vs. FM) and moments (early vs. late). Significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. RESULTS PBZ treatment (8/14) was associated with (odds ratio, 95% confidence interval) more total (2.93, 1.97-4.36), early (3.01, 1.87-4.84) and late (2.69, 1.28-5.63) adverse events than FM treatment (6/14). Tachycardia (37.83, 2.21-646.66), tachypnoea (0.29, 0.13-0.66), altered mentation (2.78, 1.01-7.67), altered mucous membranes (18.38, 1.04-325.23), incisional oedema (44.33, 2.60-754.5) and incisional pain (47.78, 2.81-811.61) were significantly different between groups. Early adverse events significantly different between groups included tachycardia (50.2, 2.9-877.0), altered mentation (3.33, 1.08-10.29) and incisional pain (21.0, 1.2-374.5), with late adverse events being tachypnea (0.07, 0.01-0.62), incisional oedema (32.92, 1.85-584.28) and incisional pain (28.92, 1.62-515.68). Colic (2/8) and non-survival (1/8) were rare events that only occurred in the PBZ cohort and could not be further evaluated for differences. MAIN LIMITATIONS Small sample size; retrospective study; treatment bias; varied administration routes. CONCLUSIONS Oral PBZ may be inappropriate to use following abdominal surgery in donkeys. CLINICAL RELEVANCE More prospective and case-controlled studies are needed to evaluate the clinical efficacy of these two NSAIDs in donkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Xue
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | - Lorenzo Segabinazzi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | - Alexis Hall
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | - Tarisai Brighton Dzikiti
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | - Hilari French
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | - Robert Gilbert
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
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Benedetti B, Freccero F, Barton J, Elmallah F, Refat S, Padalino B. A Retrospective Study on the Status of Working Equids Admitted to an Equine Clinic in Cairo: Disease Prevalence and Associations between Physical Parameters and Outcome. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:817. [PMID: 38473201 DOI: 10.3390/ani14050817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Working equids are often used to exhaustion, living and dying in conditions below minimal welfare standards. Due to their poor welfare status, euthanasia should be considered in certain conditions. The study aimed to describe the population and the disease frequency of the working equids admitted at an equine clinic in Cairo (i.e., Egypt Equine Aid (EEA)) from 2019 to 2022 and identify possible associations between physical parameters at admission and the outcome. Records of 1360 equids admitted at EEA were reviewed. The majority of the admitted equids were horses (65.6%), followed by donkeys (33%), in particular stallions (68.7%), from 1 to 15 years old (74.8%). Hospitalisation was mainly due to wounds (28.9%), orthopaedic problems (27.4%), colic (8.5%), or infectious diseases (7.4%). The majority of the equids were discharged, but 5.1% died on their own, without human intervention, and 23% were euthanised. Text mining revealed the anamnesis's most frequent words were 'accident', 'lameness', and 'wound'. In addition, owners sometimes reported using inappropriate remedies (e.g., firing) before hospitalisation. Multivariable ordinal regression analysis performed between physical parameters and the outcome (ordered based on severity: discharged, euthanasia, and dead) revealed that sex (male vs. female: OR = 1.33; p < 0.05), colour of the mucous membrane (pathological vs. physiological: OR = 1.72; p < 0.01), and capillary refill time (pathological vs. physiological: OR = 1.42; p = 0.02) increased the likelihood of a non-survival outcome. In conclusion, early euthanasia should be considered for these equids, to minimise prolonged suffering. Moreover, owners' education is recommended to guarantee minimal welfare standards to the working equids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Benedetti
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Viale Fanin 44, 40127 Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesca Freccero
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, 40064 Bologna, Italy
| | - Jill Barton
- Egypt Equine Aid, Badrshein, Giza 12989, Egypt
| | | | - Sandy Refat
- Egypt Equine Aid, Badrshein, Giza 12989, Egypt
| | - Barbara Padalino
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Viale Fanin 44, 40127 Bologna, Italy
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
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7
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Seganfreddo S, Fornasiero D, De Santis M, Mutinelli F, Normando S, Contalbrigo L. A Pilot Study on Behavioural and Physiological Indicators of Emotions in Donkeys. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13091466. [PMID: 37174503 PMCID: PMC10177292 DOI: 10.3390/ani13091466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Recognizing animal emotions is critical to their welfare and can lead to a better relationship with humans and the environment, especially in a widespread species like the donkey, which is often prone to welfare issues. This study aims to assess the emotional response of donkeys through an operant conditioning task with two presumed different emotional contents. Specifically, a within-subject design including positive and negative conditions was conducted, collecting behavioural and physiological (heart rate variability and HRV) parameters. Facial expressions, postures, and movements were analysed by principal component analysis and behavioural diversity indexes (frequencies, activity budgets, richness, Shannon and Gini-Simpson). During the positive condition, both ears were held high and sideways (left: r = -0.793, p < 0.0001; right: r = -0.585, p = 0.011), while the ears were frontally erected (left: r = 0.924, p < 0.0001; right: r = 0.946, p < 0.0001) during the negative one. The latter was also associated with an increased tendency to walk (r = 0.709, p = 0.001), walk away (r = 0.578, p = 0.012), more frequent changes in the body position (VBody position = 0, p = 0.022), and greater behavioural complexity (VGini-Simpson Index = 4, p = 0.027). As for HRV analysis, the root mean square of successive beat-to-beat differences (rMSSD) was significantly lower after the negative condition. These non-invasive parameters could be considered as possible indicators of donkeys' emotional state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samanta Seganfreddo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Diletta Fornasiero
- Epidemiology and Risk Analysis in Public Health, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Marta De Santis
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Franco Mutinelli
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Simona Normando
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, Università degli Studi di Padova, Viale dell'Università 14, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Laura Contalbrigo
- National Reference Centre for Animal Assisted Interventions, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
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Fernández EB, de Blas Giral I, Lilly G, Rodrigues JB, Vázquez Bringas FJ. Dental health and management practices of donkeys in the UK: What should we be considering? EQUINE VET EDUC 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ignacio de Blas Giral
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Instituto Universitario de Investigación Mixto Agroalimentario de Aragón (IA2) Universidad de Zaragoza Zaragoza Spain
| | - Gemma Lilly
- Research and Operational Support Department The Donkey Sanctuary Sidmouth UK
| | - Joao B. Rodrigues
- Research and Operational Support Department The Donkey Sanctuary Sidmouth UK
| | - Francisco José Vázquez Bringas
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Instituto Universitario de Investigación Mixto Agroalimentario de Aragón (IA2) Universidad de Zaragoza Zaragoza Spain
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Comparison of Donkey, Pony, and Horse Dorsal Profiles and Head Shapes Using Geometric Morphometrics. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12070931. [PMID: 35405919 PMCID: PMC8997093 DOI: 10.3390/ani12070931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Since donkey breeding has increased due to their variety of uses, welfare evaluation has become more important. This study aimed to compare donkey, pony, and horse dorsal profiles and head shapes using geometric morphometrics (GM). Photographs of 14 donkeys, 14 ponies, and 14 horses were analyzed using GM, including the sliding semilandmarks method. The variations in the first three principal components (PCs) were PC1: 57.16%, PC2: 16.05%, and PC3: 8.31% for the dorsal profiles and PC1: 44.77%, PC2: 13.46%, and PC3: 7.66% for the head shapes. Both the dorsal profiles and head shapes differed between donkeys and horses (p < 0.0001) but not between donkeys and ponies (p > 0.05). Moreover, both the dorsal profiles and head shapes differed in size between ponies and horses (p < 0.0001) but not in shape (p > 0.05). Higher Mahalanobis and Procrustes distances were noted between donkeys and horses as well between donkeys and ponies than between ponies and horses. The use of geometric morphometrics revealed the differences in the dorsal profiles and head shapes between the studied equids. These differences should be taken into account when adapting welfare scales and methods from horses to donkeys.
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Evaluation of Stress Accompanying Immunocontraceptive Vaccination in Donkeys. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12040457. [PMID: 35203165 PMCID: PMC8868182 DOI: 10.3390/ani12040457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The overpopulation of donkeys is of concern worldwide. Some of the concerns associated with uncontrolled donkey populations are the destruction of habitat, competition for feed resources, and negative human–animal interactions. One of the most effective and humane solutions is the use of immunocontraception. Immunocontraception is the use of an animal’s immune system to prevent it from fertilizing offspring by the administration of a vaccine that targets a specific portion of the reproductive system. This study sought to measure and compare the amount of stress that is imposed when two different immunocontraceptives were administered to female donkeys. The results showed that physical exam parameters (temperature, pulse, and respiration) were not affected significantly but the measurement of stress hormones suggests an acute stress response after the first vaccination that was followed by a chronic stress response after a booster vaccination 35 days later, especially in donkeys that had reactions at the injection site. Further studies would be required to identify and reduce the stress associated with the immunocontraception vaccines that were used. Abstract The overpopulation of donkeys is recognized as a problem in many parts of the world. The main concerns with uncontrolled donkey populations are habitat degradation and competition for feed resources between donkeys and other species. One of the most effective and humane solutions is the use of immunocontraception. Therefore, this study sought to evaluate the stress imposed by the use of two formulations of a zona pellucida (ZP) vaccine, a recombinant (reZP) and a native porcine (pZP) vaccine, both formulated with a Freund’s adjuvant. The stress was objectively measured using fecal cortisol concentrations and physical examination parameters at fixed points before and after vaccination. We hypothesized that fewer changes in physical exam parameters and lower fecal cortisol concentrations would be stimulated in jennies treated with the reZP vaccine due to the selection of specific proteins. Twenty-five reproductively sound jennies were randomly assigned to reZP (n = 9), pZP (n = 8) or control (n = 8) groups. The vaccines were administered at five-week intervals. Physical exam parameters and body wall thickness of injection sites were recorded for each jenny for four days post-injections. Fecal samples were obtained every other day from day 0 (first vaccination) through day 6 and on days 35 to 41 after booster. Injection site reactions were common in all groups with the reZP and pZP groups being overrepresented. Lameness was observed in the pZP and reZP groups that were affected by injection site reactions and open abscesses. The present study showed an increase in fecal cortisol concentrations within 4 days after the first vaccination with ZP vaccines and, thereafter, a decrease in cortisol 35 days later after the second vaccination, especially in donkeys with open abscesses. Our results suggest that acute stress (increased cortisol) was induced after the first vaccination, and chronic stress (decreased cortisol) occurred thereafter in association with open abscesses. In conclusion, reZP and pZP formulated with Freund’s adjuvant induced local inflammatory reactions with a differential degree of acute and chronic stress in donkeys.
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De Santis M, Seganfreddo S, Galardi M, Mutinelli F, Normando S, Contalbrigo L. Donkey behaviour and cognition: A literature review. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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12
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Measurement properties of grimace scales for pain assessment in non-human mammals: a systematic review. Pain 2021; 163:e697-e714. [PMID: 34510132 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Facial expressions of pain have been identified in several animal species. The aim of this systematic review was to provide evidence on the measurement properties of grimace scales for pain assessment. The protocol was registered (SyRF#21-Nov-2019) and the study is reported according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies reporting the development, validation, and the assessment of measurement properties of grimace scales were included. Data extraction and assessment were performed by two investigators, following the Consensus-based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) guidelines. Six categories of measurement properties were assessed: internal consistency, reliability, measurement error, criterion and construct validity, and responsiveness. Overall strength of evidence (high, moderate, low) of each instrument was based on methodological quality, number of studies and studies' findings. Twelve scales for nine species were included (mice, rats, rabbits, horses, piglets, sheep/lamb, ferrets, cats and donkeys). Considerable variability regarding their development and measurement properties was observed. The Mouse, Rat, Horse and Feline Grimace Scales exhibited high level of evidence. The Rabbit, Lamb, Piglet and Ferret Grimace Scales and Sheep Pain Facial Expression Scale exhibited moderate level of evidence. The Sheep Grimace Scale, EQUUS-FAP and EQUUS-Donkey-FAP exhibited low level of evidence for measurement properties. Construct validity was the most reported measurement property. Reliability and other forms of validity have been understudied. This systematic review identified gaps in knowledge on the measurement properties of grimace scales. Further studies should focus on improving psychometric testing, instrument refinement and the use of grimace scales for pain assessment in non-human mammals.
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Straticò P, Carluccio A, Varasano V, Guerri G, Suriano R, Robbe D, Cerasoli I, Petrizzi L. Analgesic Effect of Butorphanol during Castration in Donkeys under Total Intravenous Anaesthesia. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2346. [PMID: 34438803 PMCID: PMC8388773 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain management is necessary for all surgical procedures. Little scientific evidence about drug efficacy in donkeys is available. The aim of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effect of butorphanol in donkeys undergoing orchiectomy under total intravenous anaesthesia with guaifenesin-ketamine-detomidine. A randomized blinded prospective clinical trial (Protocol n. 2021/0000338), was carried out on 18 clinically healthy donkeys undergoing bilateral orchiectomy. Patients were assigned to Group D (n = 8) or Group DB (n = 10) if receiving intravenous detomidine or detomidine-butorphanol respectively, before induction of general anaesthesia with ketamine-diazepam. Intraoperative muscle relaxation, nystagmus, palpebral reflex, heart and respiratory rate, and non-invasive blood pressure were evaluated every 2 min; time to prepare the patient, duration of surgery and anaesthesia and recovery score were recorded. Group D had significantly longer surgical time, higher heart rate, higher systolic and mean blood pressure (p < 0.05; repeated measure ANOVA), increased muscle rigidity and expression of palpebral reflex (p < 0.05; Mann-Whitney U test) than group DB. Top-ups with thiopental were statistically higher in Group D. Butorphanol and detomidine together produced a more stable anaesthetic plan. The low dosage of opioid and alpha-2-agonists and reduced rescue anaesthesia are responsible for a safer and more superficial anaesthesia, which is mandatory under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Straticò
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Località Piano D’Accio, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (A.C.); (V.V.); (R.S.); (D.R.); (L.P.)
| | - Augusto Carluccio
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Località Piano D’Accio, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (A.C.); (V.V.); (R.S.); (D.R.); (L.P.)
| | - Vincenzo Varasano
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Località Piano D’Accio, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (A.C.); (V.V.); (R.S.); (D.R.); (L.P.)
| | - Giulia Guerri
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Località Piano D’Accio, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (A.C.); (V.V.); (R.S.); (D.R.); (L.P.)
| | - Riccardo Suriano
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Località Piano D’Accio, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (A.C.); (V.V.); (R.S.); (D.R.); (L.P.)
| | - Domenico Robbe
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Località Piano D’Accio, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (A.C.); (V.V.); (R.S.); (D.R.); (L.P.)
| | - Ilaria Cerasoli
- Clinica Veterinaria Borghesiana, Via di Vermicino 96, 00133 Roma, Italy;
| | - Lucio Petrizzi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Località Piano D’Accio, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (A.C.); (V.V.); (R.S.); (D.R.); (L.P.)
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Archer DC, Sullivan RJE, Rickards K. Emergency Management for Donkeys and Mules. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2021; 37:495-513. [PMID: 34243882 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2021.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides an overview of initial assessment and management of common emergency presentations in donkeys and mules. The principles are similar to those in horses (and ponies), but clinicians must be aware of differences in recognition of signs of pain/disease, approach to handling, pharmacology of some drugs, and subtle differences in the physiology and local anatomy in donkeys and mules. The epidemiology of common disease presentations will vary between pet/companion or working/farmed donkeys and mules. Regular dental checks, deworming, vaccination, and monitoring of behavior and quality of life are important aspects of preventive care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debra C Archer
- Department of Equine Clinical Studies, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Wirral CH64 7TE, UK.
| | - Rebekah J E Sullivan
- Veterinary Department, The Donkey Sanctuary, Brookfield Farm, Offwell, Honiton, Devon EX14 9SU, UK
| | - Karen Rickards
- Veterinary Department, The Donkey Sanctuary, Brookfield Farm, Offwell, Honiton, Devon EX14 9SU, UK
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Thiemann AK, Buil J, Rickards K, Sullivan RJ. A review of laminitis in the donkey. EQUINE VET EDUC 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. K. Thiemann
- The Veterinary Department The Donkey Sanctuary Offwell, Honiton Devon UK
| | - J. Buil
- The Veterinary Department The Donkey Sanctuary Offwell, Honiton Devon UK
| | - K. Rickards
- The Veterinary Department The Donkey Sanctuary Offwell, Honiton Devon UK
| | - R. J. Sullivan
- The Veterinary Department The Donkey Sanctuary Offwell, Honiton Devon UK
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Ibrahim A, Mahmoud UT, Ali MM, Ragab SMM. Evaluation of the subcapsular technique for primary closure castration in donkeys (Equus asinus). Sci Rep 2021; 11:14080. [PMID: 34234262 PMCID: PMC8263736 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93585-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
This study described the subcapsular technique for primary closure castration in donkeys with special regard to its efficiency and welfare impacts. The study was conducted on twelve adult male donkeys, allocated randomly into two groups; subcapsular castration (SC) and open castration (OC) groups, whether the donkeys were subjected to surgical castration either by subcapsular or open castration techniques, respectively. Testosterone, cortisol, lactate, glucose, total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglyceride (TG), and nitric oxide (NO) were measured before and after castration. Pain-associated behavioral activities were recorded post-castration. The SC was successfully performed in donkeys through a single paramedian scrotal incision. The SC was efficient as OC in reducing testosterone levels. The pain score decreased in the SC compared to the OC over time. The SC was an efficient and reliable technique for primary closure castration in donkeys with minimal postoperative complications and care and good cosmetic, physiological, and behavioral outcomes. It can be an alternative to other castration techniques in equines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Ibrahim
- grid.252487.e0000 0000 8632 679XVeterinary Teaching Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71526 Egypt
| | - Usama T. Mahmoud
- grid.252487.e0000 0000 8632 679XDepartment of Animal and Poultry Behavior and Management, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71526 Egypt
| | - Magda M. Ali
- grid.252487.e0000 0000 8632 679XDepartment of Surgery, Anesthesiology and Radiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71526 Egypt
| | - Sohair M. M. Ragab
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Assiut Uuniversity, Assiut, 71526 Egypt
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van Loon JPAM, Macri L. Objective Assessment of Chronic Pain in Horses Using the Horse Chronic Pain Scale (HCPS): A Scale-Construction Study. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11061826. [PMID: 34207290 PMCID: PMC8234780 DOI: 10.3390/ani11061826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective assessment of chronic pain is of utmost importance for improving welfare and quality of life in horses. Freedom from disease and pain is one of the 'five freedoms' that are necessary for animal welfare. The aim of this study was to develop a pain scale for the assessment of chronic pain in horses (Horse Chronic Pain Scale; HCPS), which is based on behavioural and facial expressions. The scale was used to assess 53 horses (26 horses diagnosed with chronic painful conditions by means of clinical examination and additional diagnostic procedures (consisting of osteoarthritis, chronic laminitis, chronic back and neck problems, chronic dental disorders) and 27 healthy control animals). Animals were assessed once daily for three consecutive days by two observers that were blinded to the condition of the animals and were unaware of any analgesic treatment regimens. The HCPS consists of two parts, the Horse Chronic Pain Composite Pain Scale (HCP CPS, with behavioural parameters) and the EQUUS-FAP (Equine Utrecht University Scale for Facial Assessment of Pain). The HCP CPS had good inter-observer reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.84, p < 0.001), while the EQUUS-FAP component (with facial expression-based parameters) had poor inter-observer reliability (ICC = 0.45, p < 0.05). The inter-observer reliability of the combined HCPS was good (ICC = 0.78, p < 0.001). The HCPS revealed significant differences between horses with chronic painful conditions and control horses on 2 out of 3 days (p < 0.05). In conclusion, we tested a composite pain scale for the assessment of chronic pain in horses based on behavioural and facial expression-based parameters. Further studies are needed to validate this pain scale before it can be used in practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes P. A. M. van Loon
- Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +313-025-311-11
| | - Lucia Macri
- Equine Department, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland;
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18
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de Oliveira MGC, de Paula VV, Mouta AN, Lima IDO, de Macêdo LB, Nunes TL, Trindade PHE, Luna SPL. Validation of the Donkey Pain Scale (DOPS) for Assessing Postoperative Pain in Donkeys. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:671330. [PMID: 34179164 PMCID: PMC8225999 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.671330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to validate a scale for assessing acute pain in donkeys. Forty-four adult donkeys underwent castration after sedation with intravenous (IV) xylazine, induction with guaifenesin and thiopental IV, local anesthetic block, and maintenance with isoflurane. The scale was constructed from a pilot study with four animals combined with algetic behaviors described for equines. After content validation, the scale was evaluated in 40 other donkeys by three blinded and one reference evaluator, by means of edited videos referring to the preoperative and postoperative periods: before anesthesia, 3-4 h after recovery from anesthesia, 5-6 h after recovery from anesthesia (2 h after analgesia with flunixin-1.1 mg/kg, dipyrone-10 mg/kg, and morphine-0.2 mg/kg) IV, and 24 h after recovery. Content validity, sensitivity, specificity, and responsiveness of behaviors were investigated to refine the scale. Intra- and inter-evaluator reliabilities were investigated by the weighted kappa coefficient, criterion validity by comparing the scale with the visual analog scale (VAS), internal consistency by Cronbach's α coefficient, item-total correlation by the Spearman coefficient, and intervention point for rescue analgesic by the receiver operating characteristics curve and Youden index. The scale showed very good intra-evaluator reliability (0.88-0.96), good to moderate (0.56-0.66) inter-evaluator reliability, responsiveness for all items, good criterion validity vs. VAS (0.75), acceptable internal consistency (0.64), adequate item-total correlation, except for head position and direction, and according to the principal component analysis, good association among items. The accuracy of the point for rescue analgesic was excellent (area under the curve = 0.91). The rescue analgesic score was ≥ 4 of 11 points. The scale can diagnose and quantify acute pain in donkeys submitted to castration, as the instrument is reliable and valid, with a defined intervention analgesic score.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Valéria Veras de Paula
- Department of Animal Sciences, Semi-Árido Federal Rural University (UFERSA), Mossoró, Brazil
| | - Andressa Nunes Mouta
- Department of Animal Sciences, Semi-Árido Federal Rural University (UFERSA), Mossoró, Brazil
| | | | - Luã Barbalho de Macêdo
- Department of Animal Sciences, Semi-Árido Federal Rural University (UFERSA), Mossoró, Brazil
| | - Talyta Lins Nunes
- Department of Anatomy, Pathology and Veterinary Clinics, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Brazil
| | - Pedro Henrique Esteves Trindade
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Stelio Pacca Loureiro Luna
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
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van Loon JPAM, de Grauw JC, Burden F, Vos KJ, Bardelmeijer LH, Rickards K. Objective assessment of chronic pain in donkeys using the donkey chronic pain scale (DCPS): A scale-construction study. Vet J 2020; 267:105580. [PMID: 33375958 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2020.105580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Assessment of chronic pain is very important for monitoring and improving welfare and quality of life in donkeys. Freedom from disease and pain is one of the 'five freedoms' underlying animal welfare. The aim of the current study was to develop a pain scale for assessment of chronic pain in donkeys (Donkey Chronic Pain Scale; DCPS), including behavioural and facial expression-related parameters. The scale was applied to 77 donkeys (38 donkeys diagnosed with chronic health problems by means of clinical examination and additional diagnostic procedures and 39 healthy control animals). Animals were assessed twice daily for three consecutive days by two observers that were not masked to the condition of the animals but were unaware of the analgesic treatment regimens. Both composite, facial expression-based and combined DCPS pain scales showed excellent inter-observer reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.98, 0.96 and 0.98 respectively; P < 0.001). Individual composite and facial expression-based pain scores and the resulting combined DCPS showed significant differences between donkeys with chronic conditions and control donkeys at all time points (P < 0.001). A DCPS cut-off of 6 showed good sensitivity and specificity (92% and 82.5% respectively) for presence of a chronic painful condition. Facial expression-related parameters separately showed low sensitivity. In conclusion, it is possible to use a composite pain scale for assessment of chronic pain in donkeys, based on behavioural and facial expression-based parameters. Further studies are needed to validate this pain scale before it can be used in veterinary practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes P A M van Loon
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Janny C de Grauw
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Kayleigh J Vos
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lyanne H Bardelmeijer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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20
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Orth EK, Navas González FJ, Iglesias Pastrana C, Berger JM, le Jeune SS, Davis EW, McLean AK. Development of a Donkey Grimace Scale to Recognize Pain in Donkeys ( Equus asinus) Post Castration. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10081411. [PMID: 32823676 PMCID: PMC7459673 DOI: 10.3390/ani10081411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to establish a donkey ethogram, followed by a donkey grimace scale to be applied to donkeys pre- and post-castration and to test if there was a notable difference in scores based on observer knowledge, gender, and experience, which could reveal possible discomfort/pain. Nine healthy male adult donkeys were surgically castrated. Fifty-four photos were selected from frontal, lateral, and body views taken pre- and post-castration. Observers ranging from minimal to extensive knowledge and levels of experience based on education and hours/month spent with donkeys scored six photos/donkey on a scale of 0-2 (0 = not present, 1 = moderately present, 2 = obviously present). Scores were based on body language and facial parameters: Ears down, ears back, eye white showing, glazed look, orbital tightening, eyes round shape, nostril tension, eyes narrow shape, muzzle tension, and abnormal stance and overall perception of the animal being in pain. Level of experience and knowledge, as well as gender significantly (p < 0.001), affected observers' ability to accurately score images. The study suggests that the most significant indicators of pain in donkeys are overall appearance and abnormal body stance provided their sensitivity, specificity and accuracy values of 63.18%, 62.07%, and 62.60%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma K. Orth
- Department of Animal Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95617, USA;
| | - Francisco J. Navas González
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain;
- The Worldwide Donkey Breeds Project, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
- Correspondence: (F.J.N.G.); (A.K.M.)
| | - Carlos Iglesias Pastrana
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain;
- The Worldwide Donkey Breeds Project, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Jeannine M. Berger
- San Francisco SPCA, Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA;
| | - Sarah S. le Jeune
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95617, USA;
| | - Eric W. Davis
- International Animal Welfare Training Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95617, USA;
| | - Amy K. McLean
- The Worldwide Donkey Breeds Project, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95617, USA
- Correspondence: (F.J.N.G.); (A.K.M.)
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Merkies K, Paraschou G, McGreevy PD. Morphometric Characteristics of the Skull in Horses and Donkeys-A Pilot Study. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E1002. [PMID: 32521777 PMCID: PMC7341236 DOI: 10.3390/ani10061002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Horses and donkeys belong to the genus Equus, but important differences exist between the species, many of which affect their management and welfare. This study compared skull morphology between horses and donkeys. Horse (n = 14) and donkey (n = 16) heads were obtained post-mortem, sectioned sagittally close to the midline, and photographed for subsequent measurement of various skull structures. Skull, cranial, nasal, and profile indices were calculated for topographical comparisons between the species. The olfactory bulb area (OBA), OB pitch (the angle between the hard palate and the OB axis), and whorl location (WL) were also measured. A General Linear Model determined the main effect of species with Sidak's multiple comparisons of species' differences among the various measurements. There was no species difference in cranial or nasal indices (p > 0.13), but donkeys had a larger cranial profile than horses (p < 0.04). Donkeys had a smaller OBA (p < 0.05) and a steeper OB pitch (p < 0.02) than horses. The WL corresponded to the level of the OB in horses but was extremely rostral in donkeys (p < 0.0001). These results show clear differentiation in skull morphology between horses and donkeys. This may be useful in validating other physiological and behavioural differences between horses and donkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Merkies
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, N1G 2W1 ON, Canada
- Campbell Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare, University of Guelph, Guelph, N1G 2W1 ON, Canada
| | | | - Paul Damien McGreevy
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
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