Ethological and Physiological Parameters Assessment in Donkeys Used in Animal Assisted Interventions

A Pilot Study on Behavioural and Physiological Indicators of Emotions in Donkeys

Recognizing animal emotions is critical to their welfare and can lead to a better relationship with humans and the environment, especially in a widespread species like the donkey, which is often prone to welfare issues. This study aims to assess the emotional response of donkeys through an operant conditioning task with two presumed different emotional contents. Specifically, a within-subject design including positive and negative conditions was conducted, collecting behavioural and physiological (heart rate variability and HRV) parameters. Facial expressions, postures, and movements were analysed by principal component analysis and behavioural diversity indexes (frequencies, activity budgets, richness, Shannon and Gini-Simpson). During the positive condition, both ears were held high and sideways (left: r = -0.793, p < 0.0001; right: r = -0.585, p = 0.011), while the ears were frontally erected (left: r = 0.924, p < 0.0001; right: r = 0.946, p < 0.0001) during the negative one. The latter was also associated with an increased tendency to walk (r = 0.709, p = 0.001), walk away (r = 0.578, p = 0.012), more frequent changes in the body position (V_{Body position} = 0, p = 0.022), and greater behavioural complexity (V_{Gini-Simpson Index} = 4, p = 0.027). As for HRV analysis, the root mean square of successive beat-to-beat differences (rMSSD) was significantly lower after the negative condition. These non-invasive parameters could be considered as possible indicators of donkeys' emotional state.

Donkey Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability: A Scoping Review

Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) are commonly used physiological measures in animals. While several studies exist on horse HRV, less information is available for donkeys. This scoping review aims to understand the extent and type of published evidence on donkey HR and HRV, their clinical and research applications, the devices used, and the analysis performed. Only quantitative primary studies published in English were considered. Four different databases were queried through the Web of Science platform, with additional evidence identified by citation chasing. After a two-stage screening phase, data were extracted considering study and population characteristics, information on HR/HRV analysis, and applications. The majority of the 87 included articles (about 80%) concerned a sample size of up to 20 individuals and were published since 2011 (about 65%). Forty-one articles employed an electronic device for signal acquisition (mainly electrocardiographs and heart rate monitors), yet only two articles reported HRV parameters. The literature on donkey HRV is lacking, and this gap can be filled by gaining knowledge on donkey characteristics and finding useful tools for welfare assessment. Comparison with what is known about the horse allows a discussion of the technical and interpretative difficulties that can be encountered with donkeys.

Serum Cortisol and Its Correlation with Leucocyte Profile and Circulating Lipids in Donkeys (Equus asinus)

The values for basal serum cortisol concentrations of horses are available in many studies. However, there are limited data about serum cortisol in donkeys. The present study aimed to determine the baseline values for serum cortisol, to evaluate the influence of age and pregnancy on its levels, and to correlate its values with leucocyte profile, serum cholesterol, and triglycerides. Serum samples were collected from 97 healthy donkeys. Cortisol was analyzed by chemo-luminescent assay. The median and the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles of serum cortisol measured and calculated in all donkeys were 5.64, 3.40, and 10.54 µg/dL, respectively. Females (n.91) were divided into three groups: Group A (young), Group B (adult), and Group C (pregnant at the 9th−11th months). The effect of age and physiological status was investigated by the Mann−Whitney test. Group C showed significantly higher levels than Group B (p < 0.05). Significant correlations were found in Group B with monocytes (r = 0.37, p < 0.01) and triglycerides (r = 0.30, p < 0.05), and in Group C with monocytes (r = 0.79, p < 0.01), basophils (r = 0.6, p < 0.05), and neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (r = −0.63, p < 0.05). Higher cortisol values related to late pregnancy are also found in this species. These preliminary results provide evidence for a relationship between cortisol and the immune system as well as cortisol and lipid metabolism modulated by age and pregnancy when parameters are within normal values.

Rolling pits of Hartmann's mountain zebra (Zebra equus hartmannae) increase vegetation diversity and landscape heterogeneity in the Pre-Namib

Microsites created by soil-disturbing animals are important landscape elements in arid environments. In the Pre-Namib, dust-bathing behavior of the near-endemic Hartmann's mountain zebra creates unique rolling pits that persist in the landscape. However, the ecohydrological characteristics and the effects of those microsites on the vegetation and on organisms of higher trophic levels are still unknown. In our study, we characterized the soil grain size composition and infiltration properties of rolling pits and reference sites and recorded vegetation and arthropod assemblages during the rainy season of five consecutive years with different amounts of seasonal rainfall. We further used the excess green vegetation index derived from drone imagery to demonstrate the different green up and wilting of pits and references after a rainfall event. In contrast to the surrounding grassland, rolling pits had finer soil with higher nutrient content, collected runoff, showed a higher infiltration, and kept soil moisture longer. Vegetation in the rolling pits was denser, dominated by annual forbs and remained green for longer periods. The denser vegetation resulted in a slightly higher activity density of herbivorous arthropods, which in turn increased the activity density of omnivorous and predatory arthropods. In times of drought, the rolling pits could act as safe sites and refuges for forbs and arthropods. With their rolling pits, Hartmann's mountain zebras act as ecosystem engineers, contributing to the diversity of forb communities and heterogeneity of the landscape in the Pre-Namib.

Impact of Human-Animal Interactions on Psychological and Physiological Factors Associated With Veterinary School Students and Donkeys

There has been an increased interest in evaluating human-animal interactions and assessing the mutual health and wellbeing. In this study, first-year female and male veterinary school students not paired (n = 58) or paired (n = 25) with immature (≤9 mo) donkeys (n = 13) were engaged in three different types of interactions (1st, hands-off remote learning, 2nd, hands-on passive learning, and 3rd, hands-on active learning) for 30 min each during Week 2 (Time 1), Weeks 5-8 (Time 2), and Week 12 (Time 3) over three, 15-week periods. Student psychological data involved the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) scores collected from the interactive (student-donkey pairs) and non-interactive (no student-donkey pairs) groups and modified Comfort from Companion Animals Scale (CCAS) scores collected from the interactive group during Times 1, 2, and 3. Donkey physiological data involved collection of saliva within 10 min pre- and post-interaction during Times 1, 2, and 3 in association with the different types of interactions for immunoanalysis of cortisol. There were no significant effects of the various times and types of interactions on CCAS scores. While there were no significant effects of group and types of interactions on PSWQ scores, there was an effect (P = 0.01) of time. Overall mean PSWQ scores were significantly lower during Week 12 versus Week 2. Correspondingly, while there were no effects pre- vs. post-interaction within or among times on saliva cortisol concentrations in donkeys, there was an effect (P = 0.02) of the type of interaction. Mean concentrations were significantly lower with the hands-on passive and hands-on active learning versus the hands-off remote learning. In conclusion, while this study provides preliminary evidence surrounding student donkey interactions, future studies are required with more comprehensive designs to clarify these benefits and better understand the advantages and challenges surrounding student-donkey interactions.

Can Animals Be the Key to the Development of Tourism: A Case Study of Livestock in Agritourism

Simple Summary

Animals are an integral and important part of human life. It is clear that when traveling, tourists often choose places where animals are present. They look for places with wild animals more often. Our article introduces issues concerning the role of farm animals in the creation of agritourism products and the prospects of using animals in agritourism. On the one hand, farm animals are an additional source for people who run agritourism farms and make the stay of tourists in rural areas more attractive. The presence of livestock acts as a magnet, attracting more tourists to these farms and achieving higher returns on agritourism activities. However, among the reasons for the lack of contact with animals in agritourism offerings, farmers indicated: the lack of financial resources and the lack of conditions to provide the animals with adequate maintenance. It is worth introducing farm animals as a tourist attraction in agritourism offerings.

Abstract

Animals are an integral part of human life. Currently, they constitute a relevant factor contributing to the tourist experiences of individuals travelling for tourist purposes. Domestic (farm) animals constitute a tourist attraction, are a source of income for individuals running agritourism farms, and render the tourists’ stay in rural areas more attractive. It is important to maintain the welfare of livestock based on principles of sustainability. The authors conducted research among agritourism providers in Wielkopolska Voivodeship. The aim of the survey was to determine whether agritourism farms keep livestock, what species they are, and whether they are important in building an agritourism product and what the prospects are for using animals in agritourism. A questionnaire was used for the study. The use of a variety of animal species facilitates the maintenance of biodiversity on the farm. Our research shows that 57.3% of the analysed agritourism providers included animals. Additionally, we discovered that the presence of livestock acts as a magnet that draws more tourists towards the individuals running agritourism farms and thus causes them to obtain higher profit from the agritourism business. According to the surveyed individuals, the most influential reason for the absence of livestock on their farms was the lack of financial resources and conditions to provide the animals with proper maintenance. Such findings may prompt the introduction of livestock as a tourist attraction in agritourism in other regions.