When Human-Wildlife Conflict Turns Deadly: Comparing the Situational Factors That Drive Retaliatory Leopard Killings in South Africa

Cub Survival in a Wild Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) Population

We investigated the survival of cubs in a wild Indian leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) population in the Jhalana Reserve Forest (JRF), India. The research focuses on analyzing the survival of leopard cubs during their first two years of life. Survival functions were estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method based on data collected with trail cameras over four years from 2018 to 2021. We found that the mean survival probability of cubs during the first year of life was 0.739, indicating that this period is particularly challenging for their survival. In the second year, the survival probability increased to 0.831, reflecting an improvement in survival as the cubs grew older. The combined survival rate over the two-year period, calculated as the product of the first- and second-year survival rates, was 0.618. These findings highlight the critical periods in the early life stages of leopard cubs, which are essential for developing effective conservation strategies in fragmented habitats to enhance their survival.

Identifying risk zones and landscape features that affect common leopard depredation

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a pressing issue worldwide but varies by species over time and place. One of the most prevalent forms of HWC in the mid-hills of Nepal is human-common-leopard conflict (HLC). Leopard attacks, especially in forested areas, can severely impact villagers and their livestock. Information on HLC in the Gorkha district was scarce, thus making it an ideal location to identify high-risk zones and landscape variables associated with such events. Registered cases were collected and reviewed from the Division Forest Office (DFO) during 2019-2021. Claims from DFO records were confirmed with herders and villagers via eight focus group discussions. To enhance modeling success, researchers identified a total of 163 leopard attack locations on livestock, ensuring a minimum distance of at least 100 meters between locations. Using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) and considering 13 environmental variables, we mapped common leopard attack risk zones. True Skill Statistics (TSS) and area under receiver-operator curve (AUC) were used to evaluate and validate the Output. Furthermore, 10 replications, 1,000 maximum iterations, and 1000 background points were employed during modeling. The average AUC value for the model, which was 0.726 ± 0.021, revealed good accuracy. The model performed well, as indicated by a TSS value of 0.61 ± 0.03. Of the total research area (27.92 km2), about 74% was designated as a low-risk area, 19% as a medium-risk area, and 7% as a high-risk area. Of the 13 environmental variables, distance to water (25.2%) was the most significant predictor of risk, followed by distance to road (16.2%) and elevation (10.7%). According to response curves, the risk of common leopard is highest in the areas between 1.5 to 2 km distances from the water sources, followed by the closest distance from a road and an elevation of 700 to 800 m. Results suggest that managers and local governments should employ intervention strategies immediately to safeguard rural livelihoods in high-risk areas. Improvements include better design of livestock corrals, insurance, and total compensation of livestock losses. Settlements near roads and water sources should improve the design and construction of pens and cages to prevent livestock loss. More studies on the characteristics of victims are suggested to enhance understanding of common leopard attacks, in addition to landscape variables. Such information can be helpful in formulating the best management practices.

Diversity of selected toll-like receptor genes in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and African leopards (Panthera pardus pardus)

The anthropogenic impact on wildlife is ever increasing. With shrinking habitats, wild populations are being pushed to co-exist in proximity to humans leading to an increased threat of infectious diseases. Therefore, understanding the immune system of a species is key to assess its resilience in a changing environment. The innate immune system (IIS) is the body's first line of defense against pathogens. High variability in IIS genes, like toll-like receptor (TLR) genes, appears to be associated with resistance to infectious diseases. However, few studies have investigated diversity in TLR genes in vulnerable species for conservation. Large predators are threatened globally including leopards and cheetahs, both listed as 'vulnerable' by IUCN. To examine IIS diversity in these sympatric species, we used next-generation-sequencing to compare selected TLR genes in African leopards and cheetahs. Despite differences, both species show some TLR haplotype similarity. Historic cheetahs from all subspecies exhibit greater genetic diversity than modern Southern African cheetahs. The diversity in investigated TLR genes is lower in modern Southern African cheetahs than in African leopards. Compared to historic cheetah data and other subspecies, a more recent population decline might explain the observed genetic impoverishment of TLR genes in modern Southern African cheetahs. However, this may not yet impact the health of this cheetah subspecies.

Small-livestock farmers' perceived effectiveness of predation control methods and the correlates of reported illegal poison use in the South African Karoo

The use of poison against predators is pervasive and negatively impacts biodiversity and ecosystem health globally. Little is known about the correlates of poison use as a lethal control method on small-livestock farmland. We used a mixed-methods approach to investigate commercial farmers' experience with and perceived effectiveness of predation control methods, reported poison use and its correlates in the Central Karoo. Farmers perceived lethal methods to be cheaper and more effective than non-lethal methods in protecting their livestock from predation. They reported more experience with lethal methods, and over half reported having used poison. This is higher than other estimates in southern Africa and consistent with other survey-based evidence from the Karoo. Reported poison use was positively related to perceived efficacy, declining on-farm employment and perceived threats of predators. It was negatively related to terrain ruggedness. Our findings provide an understanding of the context and motivations shaping this illegal behavior.

Effectiveness of interventions for managing human-large carnivore conflicts worldwide: Scare them off, don't remove them

Human-wildlife conflicts are associated with a threat to large carnivores, as well as with economic and social costs, thus challenging conservation management around the world. In this study, we explored the effectiveness of common management interventions used worldwide for the purpose of conflict reduction using an evidence-based framework combining expert assessment of intervention effectiveness, impact and uncertainty of assessment. We first conducted a literature review of human-large carnivore conflicts across the world. Based on this review, we identified three main types of management interventions (non-lethal, translocations, and lethal management) and we assessed their effectiveness. Our review indicates that, although the characteristics of conflicts with large carnivores are heavily influenced by the local context and the species, the main issues are depredation on livestock, space-sharing, and attacks on humans. Non-lethal interventions are more likely to reduce conflict, whereas translocations and lethal interventions are mostly ineffective and/or harmful to carnivore populations, without fostering successful long-term coexistence. The literature on conflict management is often imprecise and lacks consistency between studies or situations, which generally makes comparisons difficult. Our protocol allows for the reliable comparison of experiments characterized by heterogeneous standards, response variables, protocols, and quality of evidence. Nevertheless, we encourage the use of systematic protocols with common good standards in order to provide more reliable empirical evidence. This would clarify the relative effectiveness of conflict management strategies and contribute to the global reduction in the occurrence of human-large carnivore conflicts across the world.

Human-Wildlife Conflict in Save Valley Conservancy: Residents' Attitude Toward Wildlife Conservation

Human settlement in protected areas (PAs) is a major conservation concern in developing nations as it fuels human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). The objectives of this study were to (i) determine the key wildlife species causing conflict, (ii) assess the perceptions of residents toward the major causes of conflict with wildlife, and (iii) evaluate the attitudes of residents toward problem animals. We conducted face-to-face semistructured interviews and two reconnaissance field surveys with 290 respondents residing in Save Valley Conservancy (SVC), in Southeast Lowveld Zimbabwe from January 2014 to June 2014. Results showed that lions (Panthera leo), spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), elephants (Loxodonta africana), and Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) were the major animals involved in the conflict. Our results also showed that the land-use change from wildlife ranching to farming and contested land ownership were perceived as the major causes of HWCs. Respondents who had lived in the area longer were more likely to agree that change in land use (Ordinal logistic regression: B = 1.32, Odds Ratio (OR) = 3.74) and contested land ownership (B = .67, OR = 1.95) were major sources of conflict. In addition, increased encounters between people and wildlife triggered mixed attitudes toward problem animals. For example, males were less likely to have a negative attitude toward problem animals compared to females (Multinomial logistic regression: B = -1.39; OR = .25). Residents who had stayed for less than five years were more likely to have a negative attitude toward problem animals than those who had stayed longer (B = 3.6; OR = 36.71). These results suggest that there is a need to relook at the resettlement pattern because coordinating HWCs and implementing sustainable conservation objectives are easy in a well-planned settlement. Stakeholders need to come together and create awareness of the use of HWCs mitigations measures.

Threats of Longline Fishing to Global Albatross Diversity

Simple Summary

This research examines the impact potential illegal longline fishing vessels have on albatrosses. Using environmental criminology as a guiding theoretical framework, this research: (a) examines the patterns of concentration of potentially illegal longline fishing efforts and their relationships with the spatial distributions of commercially sought-out and illegally-caught fish species; and (b) examines how their interactions affect the average risk of albatrosses. The results indicate that: (a) potentially illegal longline fishing activities are highly spatially concentrated in areas with the highest concentration of the presence of known illegally-caught fish species; and (b) the average risk score of albatrosses is significantly higher in areas where these illegal longline fishing vessels operate. These findings provide strong grounding that illegal longline fishing poses a particularly serious threat to the survival of seabirds. These findings also call for the bird conservation lobby to work closely with regional fisheries management organizations to devise and implement targeted interventions.

Abstract

Albatrosses are among the most threatened seabird species. Often entangled in gillnets or hooked while longline fishing gear is being set, albatrosses are affected by fishing. This is assumed to be especially true in cases where illegal longline fishing vessels are involved, as they are less likely to implement the bycatch mitigation measures implemented to reduce the risk of albatrosses being caught on their hooks. This is the assumption that was tested in the current study, which uses environmental criminology as its guiding theoretical framework. Using the spatial units of one-half-degree by one-half-degree longitude/latitude cells, this research examined the patterns of concentration of potentially illegal longlining efforts and their relationships to commercially sought-out and illegally caught (i.e., CRAAVED—concealable, removable, abundant, accessible, valuable, enjoyable, disposable) fish species concentrations, as well as their effects on the average risk of albatrosses. The results indicated that (a) potentially illegal longlining activity is spatially concentrated; (b) this concentration is exhibited in areas with the highest concentrations of the presence of CRAAVED fish; and (c) the average risk score of albatrosses, as measured by their International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List status, is significantly higher in the areas where illegal longlining vessels are found controlling for the activities of legal longlining vessels. These findings provide strong grounding that illegal longline fishing poses a particularly serious threat to the survival of albatrosses. These activities, however, are not randomly spread across the vast oceans, but rather are highly spatially concentrated. Therefore, the bird conservation lobby should work closely with regional fisheries management organizations to devise and implement targeted interventions aimed at reducing potential illegal longline fishing, which, in turn, will likely have positive effects on albatrosses.