Conditionally Active, pH-Sensitive Immunoregulatory Antibodies Targeting VISTA and CTLA-4 Lead an Emerging Class of Cancer Therapeutics

Emerging druggable targets for immune checkpoint modulation in cancer immunotherapy: the iceberg lies beneath the surface

The immune system serves as a fundamental defender against the initiation and progression of cancer. Failure of the immune system augments immunosuppressive action that leading to cancer manifestation. This immunosuppressive effect causes from significant alterations in immune checkpoint expression associated with tumoral progression. The tumor microenvironment promotes immune escape mechanisms that further amplifying immunosuppressive actions. Notably, substantial targeting of immune checkpoints has been pragmatic in the advancement of cancer research. This study highlights a comprehensive review of emerging druggable targets aimed at modulating immune checkpoint co-inhibitory as well as co-stimulatory molecules in response to immune system activation. This modulation has prompted to the development of newer therapeutic insights, eventually inducing immunogenic cell death through immunomodulatory actions. The study emphasizes the role of immune checkpoints in immunogenic regulation of cancer pathogenesis and explores potential therapeutic avenues in cancer immunotherapy.Modulation of Immunosuppressive and Immunostimulatory pathways of immune checkpoints in cancer immunotherapy.

The B7:CD28 family and friends: Unraveling coinhibitory interactions

Immune responses must be tightly regulated to ensure both optimal protective immunity and tolerance. Costimulatory pathways within the B7:CD28 family provide essential signals for optimal T cell activation and clonal expansion. They provide crucial inhibitory signals that maintain immune homeostasis, control resolution of inflammation, regulate host defense, and promote tolerance to prevent autoimmunity. Tumors and chronic pathogens can exploit these pathways to evade eradication by the immune system. Advances in understanding B7:CD28 pathways have ushered in a new era of immunotherapy with effective drugs to treat cancer, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, and transplant rejection. Here, we discuss current understanding of the mechanisms underlying the coinhibitory functions of CTLA-4, PD-1, PD-L1:B7-1 and PD-L2:RGMb interactions and less studied B7 family members, including HHLA2, VISTA, BTNL2, and BTN3A1, as well as their overlapping and unique roles in regulating immune responses, and the therapeutic potential of these insights.