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Lin X, Peng N, Huang P, Xiong Q, Lin H, Tang C, Tsauo C, Peng L. Potential of quaternized chitins in peri-implantitis treatment: In vitro evaluation of antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 272:132612. [PMID: 38795897 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiqiu Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Na Peng
- Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion and New Carbon Materials of Hubei Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430081, China
| | - Peijun Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Qiuchan Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Huishan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Chenxi Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Chialing Tsauo
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Cariology and Endodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Lin Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China.
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Abusrewil S, Scott JA, Alqahtani SS, Butcher MC, Tiba M, Kumar C, Mulvihill DM, Ramage G, McLean W. The Effect of Chitosan Incorporation on Physico-Mechanical and Biological Characteristics of a Calcium Silicate Filling Material. Dent J (Basel) 2024; 12:100. [PMID: 38668012 PMCID: PMC11048767 DOI: 10.3390/dj12040100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES A tricalcium silicate-based cement, Biodentine™, has displayed antibiofilm activity when mixed with chitosan powder. This study aimed to assess the effect of chitosan incorporation on the physico-mechanical and biological properties of Biodentine™. METHODS In this study, medium molecular weight chitosan powder was incorporated into Biodentine™ in varying proportions (2.5 wt%, 5 wt%, 10 wt%, and 20 wt%). The setting time was determined using a Vicat apparatus, solubility was assessed by calculating weight variation after water immersion, radiopacity was evaluated and expressed in millimeters of aluminum, the compressive strength was evaluated using an Instron testing machine, and the microhardness was measured with a Vickers microhardness tester. In addition, surface topography of specimens was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, and the effect of chitosan on the viability of human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells was measured by a colorimetric MTT assay. RESULTS Incorporation of 2.5 wt% and 5 wt% chitosan powder delivered an advantage by speeding up the setting time of Biodentine material. However, the incorporation of chitosan compromised all other material properties and the crystalline structure in a dose-dependent manner. The chitosan-modified material also showed significant decreases in the proliferation of the HEK 293 cells, signifying decreased biocompatibility. SIGNIFICANCE Chitosan incorporation into calcium silicate materials adversely affects the physical and biological properties of the material. Despite the increased antimicrobial activity of the modified material, the diminution in these properties is likely to reduce its clinical value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumaya Abusrewil
- Glasgow Endodontology Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Glasgow G12 8QF, UK; (S.A.); (S.S.A.); (M.T.); (W.M.)
| | - J. Alun Scott
- Glasgow Endodontology Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Glasgow G12 8QF, UK; (S.A.); (S.S.A.); (M.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Saeed S. Alqahtani
- Glasgow Endodontology Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Glasgow G12 8QF, UK; (S.A.); (S.S.A.); (M.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Mark C. Butcher
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 378 Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow G2 3JZ, UK;
| | - Mohammed Tiba
- Glasgow Endodontology Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Glasgow G12 8QF, UK; (S.A.); (S.S.A.); (M.T.); (W.M.)
| | - Charchit Kumar
- Materials and Manufacturing Research Group, James Watt, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK; (C.K.); (D.M.M.)
| | - Daniel M. Mulvihill
- Materials and Manufacturing Research Group, James Watt, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK; (C.K.); (D.M.M.)
| | - Gordon Ramage
- Glasgow Endodontology Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Glasgow G12 8QF, UK; (S.A.); (S.S.A.); (M.T.); (W.M.)
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 378 Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow G2 3JZ, UK;
| | - William McLean
- Glasgow Endodontology Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Glasgow G12 8QF, UK; (S.A.); (S.S.A.); (M.T.); (W.M.)
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Phang V, Malhotra R, Chen NN, Min KS, Yu VSH, Rosa V, Dubey N. Specimen Shape and Elution Time Affect the Mineralization and Differentiation Potential of Dental Pulp Stem Cells to Biodentine. J Funct Biomater 2023; 15:1. [PMID: 38276474 PMCID: PMC10816296 DOI: 10.3390/jfb15010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The liquid extract method is commonly used to evaluate the cytotoxicity and bioactivity of materials. Although ISO has recommended guidelines for test methods, variations in elution period, and shape of samples can influence the biological outcomes. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of material form and elution period of Biodentine on dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs)' proliferation and mineralization. Biodentine (0.2 g) discs or powder were immersed in culture media (10 mL) for 1, 3 or 7 days (D1, D3 and D7). The eluents were filtered and used to treat DPSC. The calcium release profile and pH were determined. Cell proliferation was evaluated by MTS for 3 days, and mineralization and differentiation were assessed by alizarin red S staining (Ca2+/ng of DNA) and qRT-PCR (MEPE, DSPP, DMP-1, RUNX2, COL-I and OCN) for 14 days. Statistical analysis was performed with a one or two-way ANOVA and post hoc Tukey's test (pH, calcium release and proliferation) or Mann-Whitney test (α = 0.05). pH and calcium ion release of powdered eluents were significantly higher than disc eluents. Powdered eluent promoted extensive cell death, while the disc form was cytocompatible. All disc eluents significantly increased the gene expression and mineralization after 14 days compared to the untreated control. D7 induced less mineralization and differentiation compared to D1 and D3. Thus, the materials' form and elution time are critical aspects to be considered when evaluating the bioactivity of materials, since this binomial can affect positively and negatively the biological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valene Phang
- Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119085, Singapore; (V.P.); (R.M.); (V.S.H.Y.)
- National Dental Centre Singapore, 5 Second Hospital Ave., Singapore 168938, Singapore;
| | - Ritika Malhotra
- Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119085, Singapore; (V.P.); (R.M.); (V.S.H.Y.)
| | - Nah Nah Chen
- National Dental Centre Singapore, 5 Second Hospital Ave., Singapore 168938, Singapore;
| | - Kyung-San Min
- Department of Conservative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea;
| | - Victoria Soo Hoon Yu
- Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119085, Singapore; (V.P.); (R.M.); (V.S.H.Y.)
| | - Vinicius Rosa
- Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119085, Singapore; (V.P.); (R.M.); (V.S.H.Y.)
| | - Nileshkumar Dubey
- Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119085, Singapore; (V.P.); (R.M.); (V.S.H.Y.)
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Raile PN, Oliveira VDC, Macedo AP, Curylofo PA, Marcato PD, Watanabe E, Paranhos HDFO, Pagnano VO. Action of chitosan-based solutions against a model four-species biofilm formed on cobalt-chromium and acrylic resin surfaces. Gerodontology 2023; 40:472-483. [PMID: 36629151 DOI: 10.1111/ger.12672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the anti-biofilm action of chitosan, nanoparticulate chitosan, and denture cleanser Nitradine™ against biofilms comprising Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus mutans. BACKGROUND Biofilm removal from removable partial dentures (RPD) is important for success in prosthetic rehabilitation. MATERIALS AND METHODS The anti-biofilm action of the experimental chitosan-based solutions and Nitradine™ was evaluated on acrylic resin and cobalt-chromium alloy through assessing cell viability, cell metabolism, residual aggregated biofilm, and extracellular polymeric substance and biofilm morphology. RESULTS Only chitosan reduced the viability of C. albicans on cobalt-chromium alloy surface, by 98% (a 1.7 log10 reduction in cfu). Chitosan-based solutions neither promoted substantial alteration of the metabolic activity of the four-species biofilm nor reduced the amount of the aggregated biofilm. After immersion in chitosan and nanoparticulate chitosan, viable microorganisms and extracellular polymeric substances distributed over the entire specimens' surfaces were observed. Nitradine™ reduced the viability and metabolic activity of biofilm grown on both surfaces, but it did not remove all aggregated biofilm and extracellular polymeric substances. After immersion in Nitradine™, approximately 35% of the specimens' surfaces remained covered by aggregated biofilm, mainly composed of dead cells. CONCLUSION Although chitosan and Nitradine™ promoted changes in the viability of microorganisms, neither solution completely removed the four-species biofilm from the Co-Cr and acrylic resin surfaces. Thus, isolated use of hygiene solutions is not indicated for biofilm control on RPDs; this requires complementary mechanical removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Neves Raile
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Viviane de Cássia Oliveira
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Human Exposome and Infectious Diseases Network-HEID, School of Nursing of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Macedo
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Almeida Curylofo
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Priscyla Daniely Marcato
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Evandro Watanabe
- Human Exposome and Infectious Diseases Network-HEID, School of Nursing of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Helena de Freitas Oliveira Paranhos
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Valéria Oliveira Pagnano
- Department of Dental Materials and Prosthodontics, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Delaney C, Alapati S, Alshehri M, Kubalova D, Veena CLR, Abusrewil S, Short B, Bradshaw D, Brown JL. Investigating the role of Candida albicans as a universal substrate for oral bacteria using a transcriptomic approach: implications for interkingdom biofilm control? APMIS 2023; 131:601-612. [PMID: 37170476 DOI: 10.1111/apm.13327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Candida albicans is frequently identified as a colonizer of the oral cavity in health and has recently been termed a "keystone" commensal due to its role on the bacterial communities. However, the role that C. albicans plays in such interactions is not fully understood. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the relationship between C. albicans and bacteria associated with oral symbiosis and dysbiosis. To do this, we evaluated the ability of C. albicans to support the growth of the aerobic commensal Streptococcus gordonii and the anaerobic pathogens Fusobacterium nucleatum and Porphyromonas gingivalis in the biofilm environment. RNA-Sequencing with the Illumina platform was then utilized to identify C. albicans gene expression and functional pathways involved during such interactions in dual-species and a 4-species biofilm model. Results indicated that C. albicans was capable of supporting growth of all three bacteria, with a significant increase in colony counts of each bacteria in the dual-species biofilm (p < 0.05). We identified specific functional enrichment of pathways in our 4-species community as well as transcriptional profiles unique to the F. nucleatum and S. gordonii dual-species biofilms, indicating a species-specific effect on C. albicans. Candida-related hemin acquisition and heat shock protein mediated processes were unique to the organism following co-culture with anaerobic and aerobic bacteria, respectively, suggestive that such pathways may be feasible options for therapeutic targeting to interfere with these fungal-bacterial interactions. Targeted antifungal therapy may be considered as an option for biofilm destabilization and treatment of complex communities. Moving forward, we propose that further studies must continue to investigate the role of this fungal organism in the context of the interkingdom nature of oral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Delaney
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
| | - Susanth Alapati
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
| | - Muhanna Alshehri
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
| | - Dominika Kubalova
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
| | - Chandra Lekha Ramalingham Veena
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
| | - Sumaya Abusrewil
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
| | - Bryn Short
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Jason L Brown
- Oral Sciences Research Group, Glasgow Dental School, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Network (www.glasgowbiofilms.ac.uk), Glasgow, UK
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Mariyam M, Sunarintyas S, Nuryono N. Improving Mechanical, Biological, and Adhesive Properties of Synthesized Mineral Trioxide Aggregate by Adding Chitosan. INORG CHEM COMMUN 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.inoche.2023.110446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Yang X, Ma W, Lin H, Ao S, Liu H, Zhang H, Tang W, Xiao H, Wang F, Zhu J, Liu D, Lin S, Zhang Y, Zhou Z, Chen C, Liang H. Molecular mechanisms of the antibacterial activity of polyimide fibers in a skin-wound model with Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial infection in vivo. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2022; 4:3043-3053. [PMID: 36133513 PMCID: PMC9479675 DOI: 10.1039/d2na00221c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Recently, the need for antibacterial dressings has amplified because of the increase of traumatic injuries. However, there is still a lack of ideal, natural antibacterial dressings that show an efficient antibacterial property with no toxicity. Polyimide (PI) used as an implantable and flexible material has been recently reported as a mixture of particles showing more desirable antibacterial properties. However, we have identified a novel type of natural polyimide (PI) fiber that revealed antibacterial properties by itself for the first time. The PI fiber material is mainly composed of C, N, and O, and contains a small amount of Ca and Cl; the characteristic peaks of polyimide appear at 1774 cm-1, 1713 cm-1, 1370 cm-1, 1087 cm-1, and 722 cm-1. PI fibers displayed significant antibacterial activities against Escherichia coli (as a Gram-negative bacteria model) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA, as a Gram-positive bacteria model) according to the time-kill kinetics in vitro, and PI fibers damaged both bacterial cell walls directly. PI fibers efficiently ameliorated a local infection in vivo, inhibited the bacterial burden, decreased infiltrating macrophages, and accelerated wound healing in an E. coli- or MRSA-infected wound model. In conclusion, PI fibers used in the present study may act as potent antibacterial dressings protecting from MRSA or E. coli infections and as promising candidates for antimicrobial materials for trauma and surgical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Yang
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Wei Ma
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Hua Lin
- Faculty of Materials and Energy, Southwest University Chongqing 400715 P. R. China
| | - Shengxiang Ao
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Haoru Liu
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Wanqi Tang
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Hongyan Xiao
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Fangjie Wang
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Junyu Zhu
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Daoyan Liu
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
| | - Shujun Lin
- Changchun HiPolyking Co. Ltd. No. 666B, Super Street Jilin 132000 P. R.China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Shanghai Kington Technology Limited 8 Jinian Road Shanghai 200433 P. R. China
| | - Zhongfu Zhou
- School of Materials Science & Engineering, Shanghai University 99 Shangda Road Shanghai 200444 P. R. China
| | - Changbin Chen
- The Center for Microbes, Development, and Health, Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institut Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shanghai 200031 P. R. China
| | - Huaping Liang
- Department of Wound Infection and Drug, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Daping Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University) Chongqing 400042 P. R. China
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