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Elafify M, Liao X, Feng J, Ahn J, Ding T. Biofilm formation in food industries: Challenges and control strategies for food safety. Food Res Int 2024; 190:114650. [PMID: 38945629 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Various pathogens have the ability to grow on food matrices and instruments. This grow may reach to form biofilms. Bacterial biofilms are community of microorganisms embedded in extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) containing lipids, DNA, proteins, and polysaccharides. These EPSs provide a tolerance and favorable living condition for microorganisms. Biofilm formations could not only contribute a risk for food safety but also have negative impacts on healthcare sector. Once biofilms form, they reveal resistances to traditional detergents and disinfectants, leading to cross-contamination. Inhibition of biofilms formation and abolition of mature biofilms is the main target for controlling of biofilm hazards in the food industry. Some novel eco-friendly technologies such as ultrasound, ultraviolet, cold plasma, magnetic nanoparticles, different chemicals additives as vitamins, D-amino acids, enzymes, antimicrobial peptides, and many other inhibitors provide a significant value on biofilm inhibition. These anti-biofilm agents represent promising tools for food industries and researchers to interfere with different phases of biofilms including adherence, quorum sensing molecules, and cell-to-cell communication. This perspective review highlights the biofilm formation mechanisms, issues associated with biofilms, environmental factors influencing bacterial biofilm development, and recent strategies employed to control biofilm-forming bacteria in the food industry. Further studies are still needed to explore the effects of biofilm regulation in food industries and exploit more regulation strategies for improving the quality and decreasing economic losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Elafify
- Future Food Laboratory, Innovative Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiashan 314100, China; Department of Food Hygiene and Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Xinyu Liao
- Future Food Laboratory, Innovative Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiashan 314100, China
| | - Jinsong Feng
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Juhee Ahn
- Future Food Laboratory, Innovative Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiashan 314100, China; Department of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea.
| | - Tian Ding
- Future Food Laboratory, Innovative Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiashan 314100, China; College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
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Azari R, Yousefi MH, Fallah AA, Alimohammadi A, Nikjoo N, Wagemans J, Berizi E, Hosseinzadeh S, Ghasemi M, Mousavi Khaneghah A. Controlling of foodborne pathogen biofilms on stainless steel by bacteriophages: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Biofilm 2024; 7:100170. [PMID: 38234712 PMCID: PMC10793095 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2023.100170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
This study investigates the potential of using bacteriophages to control foodborne pathogen biofilms on stainless steel surfaces in the food industry. Biofilm-forming bacteria can attach to stainless steel surfaces, rendering them difficult to eradicate even after a thorough cleaning and sanitizing procedures. Bacteriophages have been proposed as a possible solution, as they can penetrate biofilms and destroy bacterial cells within, reducing the number of viable bacteria and preventing the growth and spread of biofilms. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluates the potential of bacteriophages against different biofilm-forming foodborne bacteria, including Cronobacter sakazakii, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Listeria monocytogenes. Bacteriophage treatment generally causes a significant average reduction of 38 % in biofilm formation of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel. Subgroup analyses revealed that phages are more efficient in long-duration treatment. Also, applying a cocktail of phages is 1.26-fold more effective than applying individual phages. Phages at concentrations exceeding 107 PFU/ml are significantly more efficacious in eradicating bacteria within a biofilm. The antibacterial phage activity decreases substantially by 3.54-fold when applied at 4 °C compared to temperatures above 25 °C. This analysis suggests that bacteriophages can be a promising solution for controlling biofilms in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahim Azari
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hashem Yousefi
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, 71946-84471, Iran
| | - Aziz A. Fallah
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, 34141, Iran
| | - Arezoo Alimohammadi
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Nastaran Nikjoo
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | | | - Enayat Berizi
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, School of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Saeid Hosseinzadeh
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, 71946-84471, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ghasemi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shahrekord University, P. O. Box 115, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Food Health Research Center, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
- Department of Fruit and Vegetable Product Technology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, 36 Rakowiecka St., 02-532, Warsaw, Poland
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Bumunang EW, Zaheer R, Niu D, Narvaez-Bravo C, Alexander T, McAllister TA, Stanford K. Bacteriophages for the Targeted Control of Foodborne Pathogens. Foods 2023; 12:2734. [PMID: 37509826 PMCID: PMC10379335 DOI: 10.3390/foods12142734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Foodborne illness is exacerbated by novel and emerging pathotypes, persistent contamination, antimicrobial resistance, an ever-changing environment, and the complexity of food production systems. Sporadic and outbreak events of common foodborne pathogens like Shiga toxigenic E. coli (STEC), Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Listeria monocytogenes are increasingly identified. Methods of controlling human infections linked with food products are essential to improve food safety and public health and to avoid economic losses associated with contaminated food product recalls and litigations. Bacteriophages (phages) are an attractive additional weapon in the ongoing search for preventative measures to improve food safety and public health. However, like all other antimicrobial interventions that are being employed in food production systems, phages are not a panacea to all food safety challenges. Therefore, while phage-based biocontrol can be promising in combating foodborne pathogens, their antibacterial spectrum is generally narrower than most antibiotics. The emergence of phage-insensitive single-cell variants and the formulation of effective cocktails are some of the challenges faced by phage-based biocontrol methods. This review examines phage-based applications at critical control points in food production systems with an emphasis on when and where they can be successfully applied at production and processing levels. Shortcomings associated with phage-based control measures are outlined together with strategies that can be applied to improve phage utility for current and future applications in food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel W Bumunang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 1M4, Canada
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - Dongyan Niu
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Claudia Narvaez-Bravo
- Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural & Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Trevor Alexander
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - Tim A McAllister
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - Kim Stanford
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 1M4, Canada
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Gomez M, Szewczyk A, Szamosi J, Leung V, Filipe C, Hosseinidoust Z. Stress Exposure of Evolved Bacteriophages under Laboratory versus Food Processing Conditions Highlights Challenges in Translatability. Viruses 2022; 15:113. [PMID: 36680153 PMCID: PMC9865000 DOI: 10.3390/v15010113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial viruses, or bacteriophages, are highly potent, target-specific antimicrobials. Bacteriophages can be safely applied along the food production chain to aid control of foodborne pathogens. However, bacteriophages are often sensitive to the environments encountered in food matrices and under processing conditions, thus limiting their applicability. We sought to address this challenge by exposing commercially available Listeria monocytogenes bacteriophage, P100, to three stress conditions: desiccation, elevated temperature, and low pH, to select for stress-resistant bacteriophages. The stressed bacteriophage populations lost up to 5.1 log10 in infectivity; however, the surviving subpopulation retained their stress-resistant phenotype through five passages with a maximum of 2.0 log10 loss in infectivity when exposed to the same stressor. Sequencing identified key mutation regions but did not reveal a clear mechanism of resistance. The stress-selected bacteriophage populations effectively suppressed L. monocytogenes growth at a modest multiplicity of infection of 0.35-0.43, indicating no trade-off in lytic ability in return for improved survivability. The stressed subpopulations were tested for survival on food grade stainless steel, during milk pasteurization, and within acidic beverages. Interestingly, air drying on stainless steel and pasteurization in milk led to significantly less stress and titer loss in bacteriophage compared to similar stress under model lab conditions. This led to a diminished benefit for stress-selection, thus highlighting a major challenge in real-life translatability of bacteriophage adaptational evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mellissa Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Alexandra Szewczyk
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Jake Szamosi
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8P 1H6, Canada
| | - Vincent Leung
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Carlos Filipe
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Zeinab Hosseinidoust
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
- Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
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Bumunang EW, Zaheer R, Stanford K, Laing C, Niu D, Guan LL, Chui L, Tarr GAM, McAllister TA. Genomic Analysis of Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli O157 Cattle and Clinical Isolates from Alberta, Canada. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:603. [PMID: 36136541 PMCID: PMC9505746 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14090603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin (stx) is the principal virulence factor of the foodborne pathogen, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157:H7 and is associated with various lambdoid bacterio (phages). A comparative genomic analysis was performed on STEC O157 isolates from cattle (n = 125) and clinical (n = 127) samples to characterize virulence genes, stx-phage insertion sites and antimicrobial resistance genes that may segregate strains circulating in the same geographic region. In silico analyses revealed that O157 isolates harboured the toxin subtypes stx1a and stx2a. Most cattle (76.0%) and clinical (76.4%) isolates carried the virulence gene combination of stx1, stx2, eae and hlyA. Characterization of stx1 and stx2-carrying phages in assembled contigs revealed that they were associated with mlrA and wrbA insertion sites, respectively. In cattle isolates, mlrA and wrbA insertion sites were occupied more often (77% and 79% isolates respectively) than in clinical isolates (38% and 1.6% isolates, respectively). Profiling of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in the assembled contigs revealed that 8.8% of cattle (11/125) and 8.7% of clinical (11/127) isolates harboured ARGs. Eight antimicrobial resistance genes cassettes (ARCs) were identified in 14 isolates (cattle, n = 8 and clinical, n = 6) with streptomycin (aadA1, aadA2, ant(3'')-Ia and aph(3'')-Ib) being the most prevalent gene in ARCs. The profound disparity between the cattle and clinical strains in occupancy of the wrbA locus suggests that this trait may serve to differentiate cattle from human clinical STEC O157:H7. These findings are important for stx screening and stx-phage insertion site genotyping as well as monitoring ARGs in isolates from cattle and clinical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel W. Bumunang
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - Kim Stanford
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 1M4, Canada
| | - Chad Laing
- National Centre for Animal Disease Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Lethbridge, AB T1J 0P3, Canada
| | - Dongyan Niu
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Le Luo Guan
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P9, Canada
| | - Linda Chui
- Alberta Precisions Laboratory, Alberta Public Health, Edmonton, AB T6G 2J2, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Gillian A. M. Tarr
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Tim A. McAllister
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada
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Mgomi FC, Yuan L, Chen CW, Zhang YS, Yang ZQ. Bacteriophages: A weapon against mixed-species biofilms in the food processing environment. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 133:2107-2121. [PMID: 34932868 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Mixed-species biofilms represent the most frequent actual lifestyles of microorganisms in food processing environments, and they are usually more resistant to control methods than single-species biofilms. The persistence of biofilms formed by foodborne pathogens is believed to cause serious human diseases. These challenges have encouraged researchers to search for novel, natural methods that are more effective towards mixed-species biofilms. Recently, the use of bacteriophages to control mixed-species biofilms have grown significantly in the food industry as an alternative to conventional methods. This review highlights a comprehensive introduction of mixed-species biofilms formed by foodborne pathogens and their enhanced resistance to anti-biofilm removal strategies. Additionally, several methods for controlling mixed-species biofilms briefly focused on applying bacteriophages in the food industry have also been discussed. This article concludes by suggesting that using bacteriophage, combined with other 'green' methods, could effectively control mixed-species biofilms in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fedrick C Mgomi
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127, PR China
| | - Lei Yuan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127, PR China
| | - Cao-Wei Chen
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127, PR China
| | - Yuan-Song Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127, PR China
| | - Zhen-Quan Yang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127, PR China
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Application of Bacteriophages on Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC) Biofilm. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10111423. [PMID: 34827361 PMCID: PMC8614735 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10111423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli are pathogenic bacteria able to form biofilms both on abiotic surfaces and on food, thus increasing risks for food consumers. Moreover, biofilms are difficult to remove and more resistant to antimicrobial agents compared to planktonic cells. Bacteriophages, natural predators of bacteria, can be used as an alternative to prevent biofilm formation or to remove pre-formed biofilm. In this work, four STEC able to produce biofilm were selected among 31 different strains and tested against single bacteriophages and two-phage cocktails. Results showed that our phages were able to reduce biofilm formation by 43.46% both when used as single phage preparation and as a cocktail formulation. Since one of the two cocktails had a slightly better performance, it was used to remove pre-existing biofilms. In this case, the phages were unable to destroy the biofilms and reduce the number of bacterial cells. Our data confirm that preventing biofilm formation in a food plant is better than trying to remove a preformed biofilm and the continuous presence of bacteriophages in the process environment could reduce the number of bacteria able to form biofilms and therefore improve the food safety.
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Makumi A, Mhone AL, Odaba J, Guantai L, Svitek N. Phages for Africa: The Potential Benefit and Challenges of Phage Therapy for the Livestock Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10091085. [PMID: 34572667 PMCID: PMC8470919 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10091085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the world’s fastest-growing human populations is in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), accounting for more than 950 million people, which is approximately 13% of the global population. Livestock farming is vital to SSA as a source of food supply, employment, and income. With this population increase, meeting this demand and the choice for a greater income and dietary options come at a cost and lead to the spread of zoonotic diseases to humans. To control these diseases, farmers have opted to rely heavily on antibiotics more often to prevent disease than for treatment. The constant use of antibiotics causes a selective pressure to build resistant bacteria resulting in the emergence and spread of multi-drug resistant (MDR) organisms in the environment. This necessitates the use of alternatives such as bacteriophages in curbing zoonotic pathogens. This review covers the underlying problems of antibiotic use and resistance associated with livestock farming in SSA, bacteriophages as a suitable alternative, what attributes contribute to making bacteriophages potentially valuable for SSA and recent research on bacteriophages in Africa. Furthermore, other topics discussed include the creation of phage biobanks and the challenges facing this kind of advancement, and the regulatory aspects of phage development in SSA with a focus on Kenya.
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Martinez-Medina M. Special Issue: Pathogenic Escherichia coli: Infections and Therapies. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10020112. [PMID: 33504016 PMCID: PMC7912384 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10020112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Escherichia coli is a facultative anaerobic Gram-negative bacterium from the Enterobacteriaceae family that colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of warm-blooded animals shortly after birth, and it is a lifelong colonizer of adults [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Martinez-Medina
- Microbiology of the Intestinal Disease, Biology Department, University of Girona, 17003 Girona, Spain
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10
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Pavez-Muñoz E, González C, Fernández-Sanhueza B, Sánchez F, Escobar B, Ramos R, Fuenzalida V, Galarce N, Arriagada G, Neira V, Muñoz-Aguayo J, Flores-Figueroa C, Johnson TJ, Alegría-Morán R. Antimicrobial Usage Factors and Resistance Profiles of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli in Backyard Production Systems From Central Chile. Front Vet Sci 2021; 7:595149. [PMID: 33521079 PMCID: PMC7844202 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.595149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a zoonotic pathogen and important cause of foodborne disease worldwide. Many animal species in backyard production systems (BPS) harbor STEC, systems characterized by low biosecurity and technification. No information is reported on STEC circulation, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and potential drivers of antimicrobial usage in Chilean BPS, increasing the risk of maintenance and transmission of zoonotic pathogens and AMR generation. Thus, the aim of this study was to characterize phenotypic and genotypic AMR and to study the epidemiology of STEC isolated in BPS from Metropolitana region, Chile. A total of 85 BPS were sampled. Minimal inhibitory concentration and whole genome sequencing was assessed in 10 STEC strain isolated from BPS. All strains were cephalexin-resistant (100%, n = 10), and five strains were resistant to chloramphenicol (50%). The most frequent serotype was O113:H21 (40%), followed by O76:H19 (40%), O91:H14 (10%), and O130:H11 (10%). The stx1 type was detected in all isolated strains, while stx2 was only detected in two strains. The Stx subtype most frequently detected was stx1c (80%), followed by stx1a (20%), stx2b (10%), and stx2d (10%). All strains harbored chromosomal blaAmpC. Principal component analysis shows that BPS size, number of cattle, pet and horse, and elevation act as driver of antimicrobial usage. Logistic multivariable regression shows that recognition of diseases in animals (p = 0.038; OR = 9.382; 95% CI: 1.138–77.345), neighboring poultry and/or swine BPS (p = 0.006; OR = 10.564; 95% CI: 1.996–55.894), visit of Veterinary Officials (p = 0.010; OR = 76.178; 95% CI: 2.860–2029.315) and close contact between animal species in the BPS (p = 0.021; OR = 9.030; 95% CI: 1.385–58.888) increase significantly the risk of antimicrobial use in BPS. This is the first evidence of STEC strains circulating in BPS in Chile, exhibiting phenotypic AMR, representing a threat for animal and public health. Additionally, we identified factors acting as drivers for antimicrobial usage in BPS, highlighting the importance of integration of these populations into surveillance and education programs to tackle the potential development of antimicrobial resistance and therefore the risk for ecosystemic health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Pavez-Muñoz
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Camilo González
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Bastián Fernández-Sanhueza
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fernando Sánchez
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Beatriz Escobar
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Romina Ramos
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Verónica Fuenzalida
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nicolás Galarce
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gabriel Arriagada
- Instituto de Ciencias Agroalimentarias, Animales y Ambientales-ICA3, Universidad de O'Higgins, Rancagua, Chile
| | - Víctor Neira
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jeannette Muñoz-Aguayo
- Mid-Central Research and Outreach Center, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| | - Cristian Flores-Figueroa
- Mid-Central Research and Outreach Center, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| | - Timothy J Johnson
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| | - Raúl Alegría-Morán
- Departamento de Medicina Preventiva Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Ambientales, Universidad Pedro de Valdivia, Santiago, Chile
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