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Han Z, Liu C, Li M, Deng M, Ding Y, Li Y, Huo M, Xu H, Qiao H, Gao N. Discovery of CYP2E1 as a novel target in rheumatoid arthritis and validation by a new specific CYP2E1 inhibitor. Biochem Pharmacol 2024; 229:116501. [PMID: 39173843 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 08/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Considerable evidence indicates that CYP2E1 is associated with a variety of inflammatory diseases. Here we evaluated CYP2E1 as a potential therapeutic target for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and established the protective effect of a new CYP2E1 inhibitor. Gene-expression datasets were used to analyze the change in expression of CYP2E1 in RA patients; CYP2E1 activity in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats was determined by HPLC. We further evaluated the protective effects of Cyp2e1 knockout and a CYP2E1-specific inhibitor, Q11, synthesized by our group, in CIA and adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rats. The expression of CYP2E1 in synovial tissue was elevated in RA patients and in CIA rats and the activity of CYP2E1 in vivo and in vitro in CIA rats was greater than that of controls. Cyp2e1 knockout significantly reduced the incidence of CIA and alleviated the severity of symptoms. Treatment with different doses of Q11 decreased paw thickness, volume and arthritis scores and reduced the serum levels of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β and MDA, and increased the level of GSH in CIA rats. A similar inhibitory effect was exhibited for Q11 in the AIA rats. Moreover, Q11 significantly impeded proliferation, migration, and invasion of human rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts cells. Q11 decreased the release of ROS and enhanced Nrf2 nuclear translocation and HO-1 expression in the cell nucleus. Overall, our results indicated that CYP2E1 may be a new target for RA and Q11 has potential protective effects against RA by reducing oxidative stress and opposing the inflammatory response via the ROS/Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixinying Han
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Chenxu Liu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Mingrui Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Mengyan Deng
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Ying Ding
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Yunchao Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Meidan Huo
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Haiwei Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Hailing Qiao
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Na Gao
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
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Lv L, Zhou LX, Jiang FF. Study on the mechanism of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid in retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Indian J Ophthalmol 2024; 72:S441-S447. [PMID: 38389249 PMCID: PMC467026 DOI: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_1466_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To explore the effect of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) on retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury (RIRI) and the protective effect of N-hydroxy-N'-(4-n-butyl-2-methylphenyl)formamidine (HET0016) on RIRI. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into the normal control group, experimental model group (RIRI group), experimental solvent group (RIRI + solvent group), and experimental treatment group (RIRI + HET0016 group). RESULTS The levels of 20-HETE, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in the retina of rats at 24 h after reperfusion were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was used to observe the retinal morphological and thickness changes at 24 h, 48 h, and 7 days after reperfusion. The number and localized expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9-positive cells in the retina of the rats at 24 h after reperfusion and the activation and localized expression of retinal microglia at 48 h after reperfusion were measured using an immunohistochemical method. The nuclear metastasis of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB, p65) cells at 24 h after reperfusion was observed using an immunofluorescence method. CONCLUSION Overall, 20-HETE might activate microglia to aggravate RIRI by the NF-κB pathway, but HET0016 has significant protective effects for the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Lv
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fifth Clinical College of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Li-Xiao Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fifth Clinical College of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Fei-Fei Jiang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fifth Clinical College of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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Popova D, Sun J, Chow HM, Hart RP. A critical review of ethanol effects on neuronal firing: A metabolic perspective. ALCOHOL, CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 48:450-458. [PMID: 38217065 DOI: 10.1111/acer.15266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Ethanol metabolism is relatively understudied in neurons, even though changes in neuronal metabolism are known to affect their activity. Recent work demonstrates that ethanol is preferentially metabolized over glucose as a source of carbon and energy, and it reprograms neurons to a state of reduced energy potential and diminished capacity to utilize glucose once ethanol is exhausted. Ethanol intake has been associated with changes in neuronal firing and specific brain activity (EEG) patterns have been linked with risk for alcohol use disorder (AUD). Furthermore, a haplotype of the inwardly rectifying potassium channel subunit, GIRK2, which plays a critical role in regulating excitability of neurons, has been linked with AUD and shown to be directly regulated by ethanol. At the same time, overexpression of GIRK2 prevents ethanol-induced metabolic changes. Based on the available evidence, we conclude that the mechanisms underlying the effects of ethanol on neuronal metabolism are a novel target for developing therapies for AUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Popova
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Jacquelyne Sun
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Hei-Man Chow
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Gerald Choa Neuroscience Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Ronald P Hart
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
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Vivarelli F, Morosini C, Rullo L, Losapio LM, Lacorte A, Sangiorgi S, Ghini S, Fagiolino I, Franchi P, Lucarini M, Candeletti S, Canistro D, Romualdi P, Paolini M. Effects of unburned tobacco smoke on inflammatory and oxidative mediators in the rat prefrontal cortex. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1328917. [PMID: 38333013 PMCID: PMC10851081 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1328917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Although the Food and Drug Administration has authorized the marketing of "heat-not-burn" (HnB) electronic cigarettes as a modified risk tobacco product (MRTP), toxicological effects of HnB smoke exposure on the brain are still unexplored. Here, paramagnetic resonance of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of HnB-exposed rats shows a dramatic increase in reactive radical species (RRS) yield coupled with an inflammatory response mediated by NF-κB-target genes including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and the downregulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha and gamma expression. The PFC shows higher levels of 8-hydroxyguanosine, a marker of DNA oxidative damage, along with the activation of antioxidant machinery and DNA repair systems, including xeroderma pigmentosum group C (XPC) protein complex and 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase 1. HnB also induces the expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes such as CYP1A1, CYP2A6, CYP2B6, and CYP2E, particularly involved in the biotransformation of nicotine and several carcinogenic agents such as aldehydes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons here recorded in the HnB stick smoke. Taken together, these effects, from disruption of redox homeostasis, inflammation, PPAR manipulation along with enhanced bioactivation of neurotoxicants, and upregulation of cMYC protooncogene to impairment of primary cellular defense mechanisms, suggest a possible increased risk of brain cancer. Although the HnB device reduces the emission of tobacco toxicants, our findings indicate that its consumption may carry a risk of potential adverse health effects, especially in non-smokers so far. Further studies are needed to fully understand the long-term effects of these devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Vivarelli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Camilla Morosini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Laura Rullo
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Loredana Maria Losapio
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Antonio Lacorte
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Stefano Sangiorgi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Severino Ghini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Paola Franchi
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Lucarini
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Sanzio Candeletti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Donatella Canistro
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Patrizia Romualdi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Moreno Paolini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum–University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Ramakrishna K, Sinku S, Majumdar S, Singh N, Gajendra TA, Rani A, Krishnamurthy S. Indole-3-carbinol ameliorated the thioacetamide-induced hepatic encephalopathy in rats. Toxicology 2023; 492:153542. [PMID: 37150287 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2023.153542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is reported to have hepatic and neuroprotective properties. However, the I3C role in the protection of the liver and brain in the pathological condition of hepatic encephalopathy has not been investigated. Therefore, in the present study, we have assessed the hepatic and neuroprotective roles of I3C against thioacetamide (TAA)- induced hepatic encephalopathy in Wistar rats. TAA (300mg/kg) was intraperitoneally administered to Wistar rats to induce hepatic encephalopathy. The elevated levels of ammonia in the blood, liver, and brain were substantially lowered by I3C treatment (25, 50, and 100mg/kg, oral, 7 days). I3C significantly ameliorated the TAA-induced liver dysfunction by decreasing the alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, and alkaline phosphatase enzymes and reduced the elevated cytochrome P4502E1 (CYP2E1) activity in the liver and brain. Further, I3C alleviated mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in the brain. I3C treatment improved the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 while reducing inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-1 and IL-6 in hepatic encephalopathy rats. I3C reduced the levels of apoptotic indicators mediated by the mitochondria, including cytochrome c, caspase 9, and caspase 3. Concurrently, I3C mitigated the liver and brain histological abnormalities in hepatic encephalopathy rats. Therefore, the present study concluded that the I3C protected the liver and brain from TAA-induced hepatic encephalopathy injury by inhibiting CYP2E1 enzyme activity and decreasing ammonia, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. The present study provides preclinical validation of I3C use as hepatic and neuroprotective for hepatic encephalopathy management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kakarla Ramakrishna
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IIT BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India; Department of Pharmacy, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Sangeetha Sinku
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IIT BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Shreyasi Majumdar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IIT BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Neha Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IIT BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - T A Gajendra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IIT BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Asha Rani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IIT BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sairam Krishnamurthy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IIT BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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Fangma Y, Wan H, Shao C, Jin L, He Y. Research Progress on the Role of Sirtuin 1 in Cerebral Ischemia. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2022:10.1007/s10571-022-01288-3. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-022-01288-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Hepatic, Extrahepatic and Extracellular Vesicle Cytochrome P450 2E1 in Alcohol and Acetaminophen-Mediated Adverse Interactions and Potential Treatment Options. Cells 2022; 11:cells11172620. [PMID: 36078027 PMCID: PMC9454765 DOI: 10.3390/cells11172620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alcohol and several therapeutic drugs, including acetaminophen, are metabolized by cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) into toxic compounds. At low levels, these compounds are not detrimental, but higher sustained levels of these compounds can lead to life-long problems such as cytotoxicity, organ damage, and cancer. Furthermore, CYP2E1 can facilitate or enhance the effects of alcohol-drug and drug-drug interactions. In this review, we discuss the role of CYP2E1 in the metabolism of alcohol and drugs (with emphasis on acetaminophen), mediating injury/toxicities, and drug-drug/alcohol-drug interactions. Next, we discuss various compounds and various nutraceuticals that can reduce or prevent alcohol/drug-induced toxicity. Additionally, we highlight experimental outcomes of alcohol/drug-induced toxicity and potential treatment strategies. Finally, we cover the role and implications of extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing CYP2E1 in hepatic and extrahepatic cells and provide perspectives on the clinical relevance of EVs containing CYP2E1 in intracellular and intercellular communications leading to drug-drug and alcohol-drug interactions. Furthermore, we provide our perspectives on CYP2E1 as a druggable target using nutraceuticals and the use of EVs for targeted drug delivery in extrahepatic and hepatic cells, especially to treat cellular toxicity.
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Chen X, Pang X, Yeo AJ, Xie S, Xiang M, Shi B, Yu G, Li C. The Molecular Mechanisms of Ferroptosis and Its Role in Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:889765. [PMID: 35663422 PMCID: PMC9160190 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.889765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a selective, semi-permeable layer of endothelial cells that protects the central nervous system from harmful substances circulating in blood. It is one of the important barriers of the nervous system. BBB dysfunction is an early pathophysiological change observed in nervous system diseases. There are few treatments for BBB dysfunction, so this motivates the review. Ferroptosis is a novel cell death mode caused by iron-mediated lipid peroxidation accumulation, which has recently attracted more attention due to its possible role in nervous system disorders. Studies have shown that lipid peroxidation and iron accumulation are related to the barrier dysfunction, especially the expression of tight junction proteins. Therefore, examination of the relationship between ferroptosis and BBB dysfunction may reveal new targets for the treatment of brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoshu Chen
- Shandong Academy of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Xinru Pang
- Shandong Academy of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Abrey J. Yeo
- University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Siwen Xie
- Shandong Academy of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Mengting Xiang
- Shandong Academy of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Bin Shi
- Neck-Shoulder and Lumbocrural Pain Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Gongchang Yu
- Neck-Shoulder and Lumbocrural Pain Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
- *Correspondence: Gongchang Yu,
| | - Chao Li
- Shandong Academy of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
- Chao Li,
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Chen S, Huang Y, Su H, Zhu W, Wei Y, Long Y, Shi Y, Wei J. The Integrated Analysis of Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Unveils the Therapeutical Effect of Asiatic Acid on Alcoholic Hepatitis in Rats. Inflammation 2022; 45:1780-1799. [DOI: 10.1007/s10753-022-01660-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Sato R, Ohmori K, Umetsu M, Takao M, Tano M, Grant G, Porter B, Bet A, Terasaki T, Uchida Y. An Atlas of the Quantitative Protein Expression of Anti-Epileptic-Drug Transporters, Metabolizing Enzymes and Tight Junctions at the Blood-Brain Barrier in Epileptic Patients. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13122122. [PMID: 34959403 PMCID: PMC8708024 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13122122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to quantitatively elucidate the levels of protein expression of anti-epileptic-drug (AED) transporters, metabolizing enzymes and tight junction molecules at the blood–brain barrier (BBB) in the focal site of epilepsy patients using accurate SWATH (sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion spectra) proteomics. Brain capillaries were isolated from focal sites in six epilepsy patients and five normal brains; tryptic digests were produced and subjected to SWATH analysis. MDR1 and BCRP were significantly downregulated in the epilepsy group compared to the normal group. Out of 16 AED-metabolizing enzymes detected, the protein expression levels of GSTP1, GSTO1, CYP2E1, ALDH1A1, ALDH6A1, ALDH7A1, ALDH9A1 and ADH5 were significantly 2.13-, 6.23-, 2.16-, 2.80-, 1.73-, 1.67-, 2.47- and 2.23-fold greater in the brain capillaries of epileptic patients than those of normal brains, respectively. The protein expression levels of Claudin-5, ZO-1, Catenin alpha-1, beta-1 and delta-1 were significantly lower, 1.97-, 2.51-, 2.44-, 1.90- and 1.63-fold, in the brain capillaries of epileptic patients compared to those of normal brains, respectively. Consistent with these observations, leakage of blood proteins was also observed. These results provide for a better understanding of the therapeutic effect of AEDs and molecular mechanisms of AED resistance in epileptic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Risa Sato
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (R.S.); (K.O.); (M.U.); (T.T.)
| | - Kotaro Ohmori
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (R.S.); (K.O.); (M.U.); (T.T.)
| | - Mina Umetsu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (R.S.); (K.O.); (M.U.); (T.T.)
| | - Masaki Takao
- Department of Neurology and Brain Bank, Mihara Memorial Hospital, Isesaki 372-0006, Japan; (M.T.); (M.T.)
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, National Center Hospital, Kodaira 187-8551, Japan
| | - Mitsutoshi Tano
- Department of Neurology and Brain Bank, Mihara Memorial Hospital, Isesaki 372-0006, Japan; (M.T.); (M.T.)
| | - Gerald Grant
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (G.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Brenda Porter
- Department of Neurology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA;
| | - Anthony Bet
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; (G.G.); (A.B.)
| | - Tetsuya Terasaki
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (R.S.); (K.O.); (M.U.); (T.T.)
| | - Yasuo Uchida
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan; (R.S.); (K.O.); (M.U.); (T.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-22-795-6832
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