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Das PK, Bhat MY, Sajith S. Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: a systematic review of literature. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:73-89. [PMID: 38038907 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30999-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
This study addresses the pressing need to evaluate the life cycle assessment (LCA) of electric vehicles (EVs) in comparison to traditional vehicles, amid growing environmental concerns and the quest for sustainable transportation alternatives. Through a systematic four-stage literature review, it strives to provide essential insights into the environmental impact, energy consumption, and resource utilization associated with EVs, thereby informing well-informed decisions in the transition to more sustainable transportation systems. The study's findings underscore a compelling environmental advantage of EVs. They emit a staggering 97% less CO2 equivalent emissions when compared to petrol vehicles, and a significant 70% less compared to their diesel counterparts, rendering them a crucial instrument in the battle against climate change. These environmental benefits are intricately linked to the adoption of clean energy sources and advanced battery technology. Furthermore, the study highlights the potential for additional emissions reduction through the extension of EV lifespans achieved by recycling and advanced battery technologies, with Li-ion batteries enjoying a second life as secondary storage systems. However, challenges remain, most notably the scarcity of rare earth materials essential for EV technology. The study's policy recommendations advocate for a swift shift towards clean energy sources in both EV production and usage, substantial investments in advanced battery technology, and robust support for recycling initiatives. Addressing the rare earth material shortage is paramount to the sustained growth and viability of EVs, facilitating a greener and more sustainable future in the realm of transportation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pabitra Kumar Das
- Department of Power Management, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India
| | - Mohammad Younus Bhat
- Department of Economics and International Business, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India.
| | - Shambhu Sajith
- Department of Power Management, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India
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Kim HC, Lee S, Wallington TJ. Cradle-to-Gate and Use-Phase Carbon Footprint of a Commercial Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:11834-11842. [PMID: 37515579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Increased use of vehicle electrification to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the need for an accurate and comprehensive assessment of the carbon footprint of traction batteries. Unfortunately, there are few lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of commercial lithium-ion batteries available in the literature, and those that are available focus on the cradle-to-gate stage, often with little or no consideration of the use phase. To address this shortfall, we report both cradle-to-gate and use-phase GHG emissions for the 2020 Model Year Ford Explorer plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) NMC622 battery. Using primary industry data for battery design and manufacturing, cradle-to-gate emissions are estimated to be 1.38 t CO2e (101 kg CO2e/kWh), with 78% from materials and parts production and 22% from cell, module, and pack manufacturing. Using mass-induced energy consumptions of 0.6 and 1.6 kWh/(100 km 100 kg) for charge-depleting and -sustaining modes, respectively, the mass-induced use-phase emission of the battery is estimated to be 1.04 t CO2e. We show that battery emissions during the cradle-to-gate and use phases are comparable and that both phases need to be considered. A holistic and harmonized LCA approach that includes battery use is required to reduce carbon footprint uncertainties and guide future battery designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Sunghoon Lee
- ESG Impact Team, LG Energy Solution, Seoul 07335, Republic of Korea
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
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Adeoye HA, Dent M, Watts JF, Tennison S, Lekakou C. Solubility and dissolution kinetics of sulfur and sulfides in electrolyte solvents for lithium-sulfur and sodium-sulfur batteries. J Chem Phys 2023; 158:064702. [PMID: 36792496 DOI: 10.1063/5.0132068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we monitor the dissolution of sulfur and sulfides in electrolyte solvents for lithium-sulfur (Li-S) and sodium-sulfur (Na-S) batteries. The first aim of this research is to assemble a comprehensive set of data on solubilities and dissolution kinetics that may be used in the simulation of battery cycling. The investigation also offers important insights to address key bottlenecks in the development and commercialization of metal-sulfur batteries, including the incomplete dissolution of sulfur in discharge and insoluble low-order sulfides in charge, the probability of shuttling of soluble polysulfides, and the pausing of the redox reactions in precipitated low order sulfides depending on their degree of solid state. The tested materials include sulfur, lithium sulfides Li2Sx, x = 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8, and sodium sulfides Na2Sx, x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8, dissolved in two alternative electrolyte solvents: DOL:DME 1:1 v/v and TEGDME. The determined properties of the solute dissolution in the solvent include saturation concentration, mass transfer coefficient, and diffusion coefficient of the solvent in the solid solute. In general, the DOL:DME system offers high solubility in Li-S batteries and TEGDME offers the highest solubility in Na-S batteries. Low solubility sulfides are Li2S2 and Li2S for the Li-S batteries, and Na2S3, Na2S2, and Na2S for the Na-S batteries. However, it is noted that Na2S3 dissolves fast in TEGDME and also TEGDME diffuses fast into Na2S3, offering the possibility of a swollen Na2S3 structure in which Na+ ions might diffuse and continue the redox reactions in a semisolid state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakeem A Adeoye
- Centre of Engineering Materials, School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Dent
- Centre of Engineering Materials, School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - John F Watts
- Centre of Engineering Materials, School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Tennison
- Centre of Engineering Materials, School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Constantina Lekakou
- Centre of Engineering Materials, School of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
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Saraf N, Shastri Y. System dynamics-based assessment of novel transport options adoption in India. CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 2022; 25:799-823. [PMID: 36186674 PMCID: PMC9510550 DOI: 10.1007/s10098-022-02398-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT The adoption of novel transport options such as ethanol blended fuel (E85) vehicles, electric vehicles (EV), and compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles to replace conventional petrol (gasoline) and diesel vehicles is not yet well understood. This work develops a system dynamics (SD) model to study the adoption of these novel options for private transport needs in India as a function of technology performance, cost, and other sector specific features. For EVs, expected growth in battery technology and the inconvenience due to lack of charging infrastructure are considered. Since ethanol production sector is still scaling up, model captures the inter-relationships between demand, supply, producer's profit, and investment in capacity increase. The growth in compressed biogas (CBG) plants and inconvenience due to lack of gas refilling stations are considered for CNG vehicles. For petrol and diesel, the effect of demand on consumer prices and its effect on ownership cost is modelled. A multi-multinominal logit model is used to capture selection of transport option as a function of total ownership costs. Model simulations are performed till 2050, and quantify the adoption trends as well as resulting total greenhouse gas emissions considering life cycle perspective for all the technological options. Simulation results show that E85, EVs and CNG vehicles would constitute 34 % of total private vehicle stock by 2050, resulting in 668.75 million tonnes of CO 2 emissions. The targets set by the government for EV adoption and blending rate of ethanol will not be achieved, and significant improvement is costs and infrastructure are needed. Various policy options to improve adoption of new options are explored, identifying the technology development targets. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10098-022-02398-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandita Saraf
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Room 305, Mumbai, 400076 India
| | - Yogendra Shastri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Room 305, Mumbai, 400076 India
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Li P, Xia X, Guo J. A review of the life cycle carbon footprint of electric vehicle batteries. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Feasibility and Techno-Economic Analysis of Electric Vehicle Charging of PV/Wind/Diesel/Battery Hybrid Energy System with Different Battery Technology. ENERGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/en15124364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Promoting the development of green technologies and replacing fossil fuel vehicles with electric ones can abate the environmental anxieties and issues associated with energy supply security. The increasing demand for electric vehicles requires an upgrade and expansion of the available charging infrastructure to accommodate the fast public adoption of this type of transportation. Ethiopia set a pro-electric cars policy and made them excise-free even before the first electric vehicle charging stations were launched by Marathon Motors Engineering in 2021. This paper presents the first ever technical, economic and environmental evaluation of electric vehicle charging stations powered by hybrid intermittent generation systems in three cities in Ethiopia. This paper tests this model using three different battery types: Lead-acid (LA), Flow-Zince-Bromine (ZnBr) and Lithium-ion (LI), used individually. Using these three battery technologies, the proposed hybrid systems are then compared in terms of system sizing, economy, technical performance and environmental stability. The results show that the feasible configuration of Solar Photovoltaic (PV)/Diesel Generator (DG)/ZnBr battery systems provide the lowest net present cost (NPC), with values of $2.97M, $2.72M and $2.85M, and cost of energy (COE), with values $0.196, $0.18 and $0.188, in Addis Ababa, Jijiga and Bahir Dar, respectively. Of all feasible systems, the Wind Turbine (WT)/PV/LI, PV/LI and WT/PV/LI configurations have the highest values of NPC and COE in Addis Ababa, Jijiga and Bahir Dar. Using this configuration, the results demonstrate that ZnBr battery is the most favorable choice because the economic parameters, including total NPC and COE, are found to be lowest.
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Xia X, Li P. A review of the life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: Considering the influence of batteries. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 814:152870. [PMID: 34990672 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The automotive industry is currently on the verge of electrical transition, and the environmental performance of electric vehicles (EVs) is of great concern. To assess the environmental performance of EVs scientifically and accurately, we reviewed the life cycle environmental impacts of EVs and compared them with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Considering that the battery is the core component of EVs, we further summarise the environmental impacts of battery production, use, secondary utilisation, recycling, and remanufacturing. The results showed that the environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is higher than that of ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. EVs in the use phase obtained a better overall image than ICEVs, although this largely depended on the share of clean energy generation. In the recycling phase, repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries are helpful in improving the environmental benefits of EVs. Over the entire life cycle, EVs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption; however, they have higher impacts than ICEVs in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential. In summary, optimising the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving the recycling efficiency are of great significance for the large-scale promotion of EVs, closed-loop production of batteries, and sustainable development of the resources, environment, and economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoning Xia
- School of Economics and Business Administration, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, PR China.
| | - Pengwei Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, PR China
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The interference of copper, iron and aluminum with hydrogen peroxide and its effects on reductive leaching of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Investigation of Potential Recovery Rates of Nickel, Manganese, Cobalt, and Particularly Lithium from NMC-Type Cathode Materials (LiNixMnyCozO2) by Carbo-Thermal Reduction in an Inductively Heated Carbon Bed Reactor. METALS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/met11111844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Within the e-mobility sector, which represents a major driver of the development of the overall lithium-ion battery market, batteries with nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) cathode chemistries are currently gaining ground. This work is specifically dedicated to this NMC battery type and investigates achievable recovery rates of the valuable materials contained when applying an unconventional, pyrometallurgical reactor concept. For this purpose, the currently most prevalent NMC modifications (5-3-2, 6-2-2, and 8-1-1) with carbon addition were analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry, and treated in a lab-scale application of the mentioned reactor principle. It was shown that the reactor concept achieves high recovery rates for nickel, cobalt, and manganese of well above 80%. For lithium, which is usually oxidized and slagged, the transfer coefficient into the slag phase was less than 10% in every experimental trial. Instead, it was possible to remove the vast amount of it via a gas phase, which could potentially open up new paths regarding metal recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries.
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Combs D, Godsel B, Pohlman-Zordan J, Huff A, King J, Richter R, Smith PF. Reduction of silver ions in molybdates: elucidation of framework acidity as the factor controlling charge balance mechanisms in aqueous zinc-ion electrolyte. RSC Adv 2021; 11:39523-39533. [PMID: 35492444 PMCID: PMC9044464 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra07765a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Across four molybdates, reduction of silver ions in aqueous zinc electrolyte is more facile with increasing acidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derrick Combs
- Department of Chemistry, Valparaiso University, 1710 Chapel Drive, Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA
| | - Brendan Godsel
- Department of Chemistry, Valparaiso University, 1710 Chapel Drive, Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA
| | - Julie Pohlman-Zordan
- Department of Chemistry, Valparaiso University, 1710 Chapel Drive, Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA
| | - Allen Huff
- Department of Chemistry, Valparaiso University, 1710 Chapel Drive, Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA
| | - Jackson King
- Department of Chemistry, Valparaiso University, 1710 Chapel Drive, Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA
| | - Robert Richter
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Chicago State University, 9501 S. King Drive, Chicago, IL 60628, USA
| | - Paul F. Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Valparaiso University, 1710 Chapel Drive, Valparaiso, IN 46383, USA
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