The Impact of Using Mobile Phones on Gait Characteristics: A Narrative Review

Postural Control and Muscle Activity during Dual-Task in Young Adults

In everyday life, we recurrently perform two tasks simultaneously, which is called dual-tasking. A common dual task is smartphone use while standing or walking. According to previous studies, this task can compromise postural stability. However, few studies have analyzed lower limb muscle activity during dual-tasking using smartphones. This study aimed to assess the postural sway and muscle activity during dual-tasking in young adults. Thirty-six healthy young adults (23.08 ± 3.92 years) participated in this study. They performed a single task (ST: keeping a quiet standing posture) and a dual task (DT: keeping the ST while simultaneously performing a cognitive task on their smartphone). Postural sway was assessed through the center of pressure (CoP) analysis using a force platform: total CoP displacement, CoP displacement in the anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions, mean total velocity of the CoP, mean velocity of the CoP in the anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions, and 95% confidence ellipse sway area. A surface electromyography system recorded the muscle activity of the lumbar spinal erector and five muscles of the lower limb (bilaterally). The results showed an increase in postural sway from the ST to the DT in all CoP variables (p < 0.05), and muscle activity in most muscles analyzed decreased from the ST to the DT (p < 0.05). In conclusion, our results reflect a decentralization of attention from motor performance once postural sway increased and muscle activity decreased in dual-task conditions.

Does Texting While Walking Affect Gait's Plantar Pressure Parameters?

BACKGROUND

This study aims to examine the possible effects of mobile phone use on plantar pressure and spatiotemporal parameters during walking.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty volunteers (18 males and 12 females) participated in the study. A 10-m walking path was prepared, and a messaging connection was established. They were asked to write three posts without word or character mistakes and participants walked on the path walk as much as they wanted on the trail to make sure they were walking at their own pace. The gait's spatiotemporal parameters and plantar pressure parameters were recorded while walking. A paired samples t-test was used to determine whether there was a difference between normal walking and walking while texting.

RESULTS

While walking and writing a message, cadence, speed, and step length decreased significantly (P < 0.05). In the plantar pressure parameters, the fore- and midfoot load and pressure were significantly increased (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to normal walking, the forces on the forefoot and midfoot and the pressure per unit area increased in walking while texting. It is thought that the pace of walking slows down, and focus and attention shift to the front of the body.

Watch your step: A pilot study of smartphone use effect on young females' gait performance while walking up and down stairs and escalators

The increasingly ubiquitous use of smartphones has made distracted walking common, not only on flat ground, but also on stairs. Available information regarding changes in gait performance while walking and using a smartphone in different environments is still lacking. We aimed to investigate the differences in gait behavior and subjective walking confidence while walking up and down stairs and escalators, with and without smartphone use. A field experiment involving 32 female adults was conducted at a subway station. Gait parameters collected included step frequency, acceleration root mean square, step variability, step regularity, and step symmetry. The results showed that walking task, walking environment, and walking direction significantly affected gait performance and walking confidence. Overall, playing games or texting while walking down escalators resulted in the lowest walking confidence and the largest gait performance decrement: slower step frequency; reduced root mean square; decreased step regularity and step symmetry; and increased step variability. Step frequency, step variability, and step regularity significantly correlated with walking confidence. Smartphone use while walking on stairs and escalators significantly affects gait behavior and might increase the risk of falls. Interventions and prevention are needed to increase safety education and hazard warnings for the general population.

Influence of cognitive and motor tasks using smartphone during gait: EMG and gait performance analysis - Dual-task study

Previous studies reported changes in spatiotemporal gait parameters during dual-task performance while walking using a smartphone compared to walking without a smartphone. However, studies that assess muscle activity while walking and simultaneously performing smartphone tasks are scarce. So, this study aimed to assess the effects of motor and cognitive tasks using a smartphone while simultaneously performing gait on muscle activity and gait spatiotemporal parameters in healthy young adults. Thirty young adults (22.83 ± 3.92 years) performed five tasks: walking without a smartphone (single-task, ST); typing on a smartphone keyboard in a sitting position (secondary motor single-task); performing a cognitive task on a smartphone in a sitting position (cognitive single-task); walking while typing on a smartphone keyboard (motor dual-task, mot-DT) and walking while performing a cognitive task on a smartphone (cognitive dual-task, cog-DT). Gait speed, stride length, stride width and cycle time were collected using an optical motion capture system coupled with two force plates. Muscle activity was recorded using surface electromyographic signals from bilateral biceps femoris, rectus femoris, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius medialis, gastrocnemius lateralis, gluteus maximus and lumbar erector spinae. Results showed a decrease in stride length and gait speed from the single-task to cog-DT and mot-DT (p < 0.05). On the other hand, muscle activity increased in most muscles analyzed from single- to dual-task conditions (p < 0.05). In conclusion, performing a cognitive or motor task using a smartphone while walking promote a decline in spatiotemporal gait parameters performance and change muscle activity pattern compared to normal walking.

The effect of mobile phone task and age on gait: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective: Mobile phone usage while performing postural-locomotor tasks is everyday activity across persons of all ages in various environmental contexts and health conditions. However, it is also an important factor contributing to accidents. To lower the risk of pedestrian accidents, this meta-analysis aimed to examine how mobile phones affect pedestrian gait and identify how mobile phone tasks and participant age affect gait differently.

Methods: Electronic database searches were performed in The Cochrane Library, PubMed, and Medline. Two examiners evaluated the eligibility and quality of included studies using the Downs and Black checklist. The mean differences (MD) or standardized mean differences (SMD) were calculated for each outcome. Subgroup analyses were used to compare the differential effects of mobile phone task and participant age on gait.

Results: Among 22 eligible studies, 592 participants in 10 countries were analyzed in this meta-analysis. The overall meta-analysis showed that using a mobile phone significantly decreased pedestrian gait velocity (SMD = −1.45; 95% CI: −1.66 to −1.24; p &lt; 0.00001; I2 = 66%), step length (SMD = −1.01; 95% CI: −1.43 to −0.59; p &lt; 0.00001; I2 = 82%), and stride length (SMD = −0.9; 95% CI: −1.19 to −0.60; p &lt; 0.00001; I2 = 79%), significantly increased pedestrian step time (SMD = 0.77; 95% CI: 0.45 to 1.08; p &lt; 0.00001; I2 = 78%), stride time (SMD = 0.87; 95% CI: 0.69 to 1.06; p &lt; 0.00001; I2 = 24%), step width (SMD = 0.79; 95% CI: 0.34 to 1.24; p = 0.0006. I2 = 75%), double support time (SMD = 1.09; 95% CI: 0.86 to 1.31; p &lt; 0.00001; I2 = 42%), and double support (%gait cycle, %GC) (MD = 2.32; 95% CI: 1.75 to 2.88; p &lt; 0.00001; I2 = 26%).

Conclusion: In summary, the effects of mobile phone tasks and participant age on gait were inconsistent. Our study found that resource-intensive tasks (texting and reading) significantly reduced gait velocity, and step time; however, small resource-intensive tasks (calling, talking, and dialing) did not affect these outcomes. In contrast to young adults, step length and step time were not affected by mobile phone use in older adults. Tips: Pedestrians should consider using a mobile phone in their daily lives according to the application scenarios (walking environment, the complexity of mobile phone tasks, pedestrians’ task processing abilities, etc.) as appropriate to avoid dangerous accidents.

Systematic Review Registration: identifier CRD42022358963.

The Role of Sleep Quality and Physical Activity Level on Gait Speed and Brain Hemodynamics Changes in Young Adults-A Dual-Task Study

Walking requires attentional resources, and the studies using neuroimage techniques have grown to understand the interaction between cortical activity and motor performance. Previous studies reported a decline in gait performance and changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity during a dual-task performance compared to walking only. Some lifestyle factors, such as sleep and physical activity (PA) levels, can compromise walking performance and brain activity. Nonetheless, the studies are scarce. This study aimed to assess gait speed and hemodynamic response in the PFC during a cognitive dual-task (cog-DT) compared to walking only, and to analyze the correlation between PA and sleep quality (SQ) with gait performance and hemodynamic response in the PFC during a single task (ST) and cog-DT performance in young adults. A total of 18 healthy young adults (mean age ± SD = 24.11 ± 4.11 years) participated in this study. They performed a single motor task (mot-ST)—normal walking—and a cog-DT—walking while performing a cognitive task on a smartphone. Gait speed was collected using a motion capture system coupled with two force plates. The hemoglobin differences (Hb-diff), oxyhemoglobin ([oxy-Hb]) and deoxyhemoglobin ([deoxy-Hb]) concentrations in the PFC were obtained using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. The SQ and PA were assessed through the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index and International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form questionnaires, respectively. The results show a decrease in gait speed (p < 0.05), a decrease in [deoxy-Hb] (p < 0.05), and an increase in Hb-diff (p < 0.05) and [oxy-Hb] (p > 0.05) in the prefrontal cortex during the cog-DT compared to the single task. A positive correlation between SQ and Hb-diff during the cog-DT performance was found. In conclusion, the PFC’s hemodynamic response during the cog-DT suggests that young adults prioritize cognitive tasks over motor performance. SQ only correlates with the Hb-diff during the cog-DT, showing that poor sleep quality was associated with increased Hb-diff in the PFC. The gait performance and hemodynamic response do not correlate with physical activity level.