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Itabe H, Obama T. The Oxidized Lipoproteins In Vivo: Its Diversity and Behavior in the Human Circulation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065747. [PMID: 36982815 PMCID: PMC10053446 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
A high concentration of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) in circulation has been well-known as a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. The presence of oxidized LDLs (oxLDLs) in atherosclerotic lesions and circulation was demonstrated using anti-oxLDL monoclonal antibodies. The so-called “oxLDL hypothesis”, as a mechanism for atherosclerosis development, has been attracting attention for decades. However, the oxLDL has been considered a hypothetical particle since the oxLDL present in vivo has not been fully characterized. Several chemically modified LDLs have been proposed to mimic oxLDLs. Some of the subfractions of LDL, especially Lp(a) and electronegative LDL, have been characterized as oxLDL candidates as oxidized phospholipids that stimulate vascular cells. Oxidized high-density lipoprotein (oxHDL) and oxLDL were discovered immunologically in vivo. Recently, an oxLDL-oxHDL complex was found in human plasma, suggesting the involvement of HDLs in the oxidative modification of lipoproteins in vivo. In this review, we summarize our understanding of oxidized lipoproteins and propose a novel standpoint to understand the oxidized lipoproteins present in vivo.
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Benitez Amaro A, Solanelles Curco A, Garcia E, Julve J, Rives J, Benitez S, Llorente Cortes V. Apolipoprotein and LRP1-Based Peptides as New Therapeutic Tools in Atherosclerosis. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10163571. [PMID: 34441867 PMCID: PMC8396846 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10163571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein (Apo)-based mimetic peptides have been shown to reduce atherosclerosis. Most of the ApoC-II and ApoE mimetics exert anti-atherosclerotic effects by improving lipid profile. ApoC-II mimetics reverse hypertriglyceridemia and ApoE-based peptides such as Ac-hE18A-NH2 reduce cholesterol and triglyceride (TG) levels in humans. Conversely, other classes of ApoE and ApoA-I mimetic peptides and, more recently, ApoJ and LRP1-based peptides, exhibit several anti-atherosclerotic actions in experimental models without influencing lipoprotein profile. These other mimetic peptides display at least one atheroprotective mechanism such as providing LDL stability against mechanical modification or conferring protection against the action of lipolytic enzymes inducing LDL aggregation in the arterial intima. Other anti-atherosclerotic effects exerted by these peptides also include protection against foam cell formation and inflammation, and induction of reverse cholesterol transport. Although the underlying mechanisms of action are still poorly described, the recent findings suggest that these mimetics could confer atheroprotection by favorably influencing lipoprotein function rather than lipoprotein levels. Despite the promising results obtained with peptide mimetics, the assessment of their stability, atheroprotective efficacy and tissue targeted delivery are issues currently under progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleyda Benitez Amaro
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.A.); (E.G.)
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain;
| | | | - Eduardo Garcia
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.A.); (E.G.)
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Josep Julve
- Metabolic Basis of Cardiovascular Risk Group, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain;
- CIBER de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas (CIBERDEM), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose Rives
- Biochemistry Department, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08025 Barcelona, Spain;
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08016 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sonia Benitez
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry Group, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: (S.B.); or (V.L.C.)
| | - Vicenta Llorente Cortes
- Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (A.B.A.); (E.G.)
- Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain;
- CIBERCV, Institute of Health Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (S.B.); or (V.L.C.)
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3
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Teixeira AAR, Carnero LR, Kuramoto A, Tang FHF, Gomes CH, Pereira NB, de Oliveira LC, Garrini R, Monteiro JS, Setubal JC, Sabino EC, Pasqualini R, Colli W, Arap W, Alves MJM, Cunha-Neto E, Giordano RJ. A refined genome phage display methodology delineates the human antibody response in patients with Chagas disease. iScience 2021; 24:102540. [PMID: 34142048 PMCID: PMC8185243 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Large-scale mapping of antigens and epitopes is pivotal for developing immunotherapies but challenging, especially for eukaryotic pathogens, owing to their large genomes. Here, we developed an integrated platform for genome phage display (gPhage) to show that unbiased libraries of the eukaryotic parasite Trypanosoma cruzi enable the identification of thousands of antigens recognized by serum samples from patients with Chagas disease. Because most of these antigens are hypothetical proteins, gPhage provides evidence of their expression during infection. We built and validated a comprehensive map of Chagas disease antibody response to show how linear and putative conformation epitopes, many rich in repetitive elements, allow the parasite to evade a buildup of neutralizing antibodies directed against protein domains that mediate infection pathogenesis. Thus, the gPhage platform is a reproducible and effective tool for rapid simultaneous identification of epitopes and antigens, not only in Chagas disease but perhaps also in globally emerging/reemerging acute pathogens. Genomic shotgun phage display (gPhage) of eukaryotes is feasible and promising. gPhage allows rapid antigen ID and epitope mapping, including 3D structures. Conformation epitopes can be identified and validated by using the gPhage platform. Most Chagas disease antigens are hypothetical proteins rich in repetitive elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Azevedo Reis Teixeira
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Luis Rodriguez Carnero
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Andréia Kuramoto
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Fenny Hui Fen Tang
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil.,Division of Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Carlos Hernique Gomes
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Natalia Bueno Pereira
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Léa Campos de Oliveira
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Regina Garrini
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Jhonatas Sirino Monteiro
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - João Carlos Setubal
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Ester Cerdeira Sabino
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Renata Pasqualini
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.,Division of Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Walter Colli
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Wadih Arap
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.,Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Maria Júlia Manso Alves
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Edécio Cunha-Neto
- Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil.,Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, SP 01246-903, Brazil.,Institute for Investigation in Immunology (iii), INCT, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo José Giordano
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil.,Institute for Investigation in Immunology (iii), INCT, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Chu CS, Law SH, Lenzen D, Tan YH, Weng SF, Ito E, Wu JC, Chen CH, Chan HC, Ke LY. Clinical Significance of Electronegative Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Atherothrombosis. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8080254. [PMID: 32751498 PMCID: PMC7460408 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8080254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the numerous risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVD), cumulative evidence shows that electronegative low-density lipoprotein (L5 LDL) cholesterol is a promising biomarker. Its toxicity may contribute to atherothrombotic events. Notably, plasma L5 LDL levels positively correlate with the increasing severity of cardiovascular diseases. In contrast, traditional markers such as LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride are the therapeutic goals in secondary prevention for ASCVD, but that is controversial in primary prevention for patients with low risk. In this review, we point out the clinical significance and pathophysiological mechanisms of L5 LDL, and the clinical applications of L5 LDL levels in ASCVD can be confidently addressed. Based on the previously defined cut-off value by receiver operating characteristic curve, the acceptable physiological range of L5 concentration is proposed to be below 1.7 mg/dL. When L5 LDL level surpass this threshold, clinically relevant ASCVD might be present, and further exams such as carotid intima-media thickness, pulse wave velocity, exercise stress test, or multidetector computed tomography are required. Notably, the ultimate goal of L5 LDL concentration is lower than 1.7 mg/dL. Instead, with L5 LDL greater than 1.7 mg/dL, lipid-lowering treatment may be required, including statin, ezetimibe or PCSK9 inhibitor, regardless of the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) level. Since L5 LDL could be a promising biomarker, we propose that a high throughput, clinically feasible methodology is urgently required not only for conducting a prospective, large population study but for developing therapeutics strategies to decrease L5 LDL in the blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Sheng Chu
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan;
- Division of Cardiology, Department of International Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung 80145, Taiwan
| | - Shi Hui Law
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
| | - David Lenzen
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
| | - Yong-Hong Tan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
| | - Shih-Feng Weng
- Department of Healthcare Administration and Medical Informatics, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan;
| | - Etsuro Ito
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
- Department of Biology, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
- Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
| | - Jung-Chou Wu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Pingtung Christian Hospital, Pingtung 90059, Taiwan;
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan;
- Correspondence: (H.-C.C.); (L.-Y.K.); Tel.: +886-73121101 (ext. 2296); Fax: +886-73111996 (L.-Y.K.)
| | - Liang-Yin Ke
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, & Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (H.-C.C.); (L.-Y.K.); Tel.: +886-73121101 (ext. 2296); Fax: +886-73111996 (L.-Y.K.)
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Puig N, Montolio L, Camps-Renom P, Navarra L, Jiménez-Altayó F, Jiménez-Xarrié E, Sánchez-Quesada JL, Benitez S. Electronegative LDL Promotes Inflammation and Triglyceride Accumulation in Macrophages. Cells 2020; 9:cells9030583. [PMID: 32121518 PMCID: PMC7140452 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Electronegative low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (LDL(−)), a modified LDL that is present in blood and exerts atherogenic effects on endothelial cells and monocytes. This study aimed to determine the action of LDL(−) on monocytes differentiated into macrophages. LDL(−) and in vitro-modified LDLs (oxidized, aggregated, and acetylated) were added to macrophages derived from THP1 monocytes over-expressing CD14 (THP1-CD14). Then, cytokine release, cell differentiation, lipid accumulation, and gene expression were measured by ELISA, flow cytometry, thin-layer chromatography, and real-time PCR, respectively. LDL(−) induced more cytokine release in THP1-CD14 macrophages than other modified LDLs. LDL(−) also promoted morphological changes ascribed to differentiated macrophages. The addition of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and anti-TLR4 counteracted these effects. LDL(−) was highly internalized by macrophages, and it was the major inductor of intracellular lipid accumulation in triglyceride-enriched lipid droplets. In contrast to inflammation, the addition of anti-TLR4 had no effect on lipid accumulation, thus suggesting an uptake pathway alternative to TLR4. In this regard, LDL(−) upregulated the expression of the scavenger receptors CD36 and LOX-1, as well as several genes involved in triglyceride (TG) accumulation. The importance and novelty of the current study is that LDL(−), a physiologically modified LDL, exerted atherogenic effects in macrophages by promoting differentiation, inflammation, and triglyceride-enriched lipid droplets formation in THP1-CD14 macrophages, probably through different receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Núria Puig
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (N.P.); (L.M.); (L.N.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Building M, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lara Montolio
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (N.P.); (L.M.); (L.N.)
| | - Pol Camps-Renom
- Stroke Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, and IIB-Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Laia Navarra
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (N.P.); (L.M.); (L.N.)
| | - Francesc Jiménez-Altayó
- Departament of Pharmacology. Neuroscience Institute. Faculty of Medicine, UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Elena Jiménez-Xarrié
- Stroke Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, and IIB-Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain;
- Correspondence: (E.J.-X.); (J.L.S.-Q.); (S.B.); Tel.: +34-93-553-7595 (S.B.)
| | - Jose Luis Sánchez-Quesada
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (N.P.); (L.M.); (L.N.)
- CIBER of Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases (CIBERDEM), 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (E.J.-X.); (J.L.S.-Q.); (S.B.); Tel.: +34-93-553-7595 (S.B.)
| | - Sonia Benitez
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (N.P.); (L.M.); (L.N.)
- Correspondence: (E.J.-X.); (J.L.S.-Q.); (S.B.); Tel.: +34-93-553-7595 (S.B.)
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Tripodi GL, Prieto MB, Abdalla DSP. Inflammasome Activation in Human Macrophages Induced by a LDL (-) Mimetic Peptide. Inflammation 2019; 43:722-730. [PMID: 31858317 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-019-01159-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The inflammasome is responsible for maturation of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18) contributing to the inflammatory process in atherosclerosis. It is shown here that an electronegative low-density lipoprotein [LDL (-)] apoB-100 mimetic peptide can activate the transcriptional and posttranslational signs needed for complete inflammasome activation. This peptide, named p2C7, can activate the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) that induces NF-κB activation and the transcription of inflammasome components. After blocking TLR4 with a neutralizing antibody, inflammasome component (NLRP3, CASP1, and ASC) and IL1b and IL18 gene downregulation occurred in human-derived macrophages stimulated with p2C7 or LDL (-). Moreover, the posttranslational signal was activated by the interaction between p2C7 and the lectin-type oxidized LDL receptor 1 (LOX-1), as demonstrated by the induction of caspase-1 cleavage in macrophages. The blockage of either TLR4 or LOX-1 decreased IL-1β and IL-18 secretion by human-derived macrophages as both pathways are necessary for complete inflammasome activation. These findings suggest a mechanism by which macrophages transduce the pro-inflammatory signal provided by LDL (-) ApoB-100 and its mimetic peptides to activate the inflammasome protein complex what may be relevant for the inflammatory process in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Luis Tripodi
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Marcela Bach Prieto
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Dulcineia Saes Parra Abdalla
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil.
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Li Q, Ning X, Wang Y, Zhu Q, Guo Y, Li H, Zhou Y, Kou Z. The Integrity of α-β-α Sandwich Conformation Is Essential for a Novel Adjuvant TFPR1 to Maintain Its Adjuvanticity. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9120869. [PMID: 31842458 PMCID: PMC6995627 DOI: 10.3390/biom9120869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
TFPR1 is a novel peptide vaccine adjuvant we recently discovered. To define the structural basis and optimize its application as an adjuvant, we designed three different truncated fragments that have removed dominant B epitopes on TFPR1, and evaluated their capacity to activate bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and their adjuvanticity. Results demonstrated that the integrity of an α-β-α sandwich conformation is essential for TFPR1 to maintain its immunologic activity and adjuvanticity. We obtained a functional truncated fragment TFPR-ta ranging from 40-168 aa of triflin that has similar adjuvanticity as TFPR1 but with 2-log fold lower immunogenicity. These results demonstrated a novel approach to evaluate and improve the activity of protein-based vaccine adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Li
- Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China; (Q.L.); (Y.W.)
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Xiuzhe Ning
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yuepeng Wang
- Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China; (Q.L.); (Y.W.)
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Qing Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Hao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yusen Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Zhihua Kou
- Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China; (Q.L.); (Y.W.)
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; (X.N.); (Q.Z.); (Y.G.); (H.L.); (Y.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-10-63858045
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