Unraveling the Complexity of HDL Remodeling: On the Hunt to Restore HDL Quality

Apolipoprotein A1 (CSL112) Increases Lecithin-Cholesterol Acyltransferase Levels in HDL Particles and Promotes Reverse Cholesterol Transport

Although high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol is inversely correlated with cardiovascular risk, an emerging paradigm is focused on increasing reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) and HDL function via apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1). The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of ApoA1 (CSL112) infusion on HDL protein composition, cholesterol esterification rate (CER), and cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) in patients treated after acute myocardial infarction. CSL112 reduced levels of apolipoproteins A2, B, C, and E and serum amyloids A1 and A4, whereas ApoA1, ApoM, and lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase were significantly elevated. Increased CEC, plasma HDL cholesterol levels, CER, and CEC also were observed in CSL112-treated patients.

Dysfunctional HDL Diagnostic Metrics for Cardiovascular Disease Risk Stratification: Are we Ready to Implement in Clinics?

Epidemiological studies have revealed that patients with higher levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) were more resistant to cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and yet targeting HDL for CVD prevention, risk assessment, and pharmacological management has not proven to be very effective. The mechanistic investigations have demonstrated that HDL exerts anti-atherogenic functions via mediating reverse cholesterol transport, antioxidant action, anti-inflammatory activity, and anti-thrombotic activity. Contrary to expectations, however, adverse cardiovascular events were reported in clinical trials of drugs that raised HDL levels. This has sparked a debate between HDL quantity and quality. Patients with atherosclerotic CVD are associated with dysfunctional HDL, and the degree of HDL dysfunction is correlated with the severity of the disease, independent of HDL-C levels. This growing body of evidence has underscored the need for integrating HDL functional assays in clinical practice for CVD risk management. Because HDL exerts diverse athero-protective functions, there is no single method for capturing HDL functionality. This review critically evaluates the various techniques currently being used for monitoring HDL functionality and discusses key structural changes in HDL indicative of dysfunctional HDL and the technical challenges that need to be addressed to enable the integration of HDL function-based metrics in clinical practice for CVD risk estimation and the development of newer therapies targeting HDL function.

Emerging Biomarkers and Determinants of Lipoprotein Profiles to Predict CVD Risk: Implications for Precision Nutrition

Biomarkers constitute a valuable tool to diagnose both the incidence and the prevalence of chronic diseases and may help to inform the design and effectiveness of precision nutrition interventions. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to be the foremost cause of death all over the world. While the reasons that lead to increased risk for CVD are multifactorial, dyslipidemias, plasma concentrations of specific lipoproteins, and dynamic measures of lipoprotein function are strong biomarkers to predict and document coronary heart disease incidence. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the biomarkers and emerging approaches that can be utilized to characterize lipoprotein profiles as predictive tools for assessing CVD risk, including the assessment of traditional clinical lipid panels, measures of lipoprotein efflux capacity and inflammatory and antioxidant activity, and omics-based characterization of lipoprotein composition and regulators of lipoprotein metabolism. In addition, we discuss demographic, genetic, metagenomic, and lifestyle determinants of lipoprotein profiles-such as age, sex, gene variants and single-nucleotide polymorphisms, gut microbiome profiles, dietary patterns, physical inactivity, obesity status, smoking and alcohol intake, and stress-which are likely to be essential factors to explain interindividual responses to precision nutrition recommendations to mitigate CVD risk.

High-Density Lipoproteins at the Interface between the NLRP3 Inflammasome and Myocardial Infarction

Despite significant therapeutic advancements, morbidity and mortality following myocardial infarction (MI) remain unacceptably high. This clinical challenge is primarily attributed to two significant factors: delayed reperfusion and the myocardial injury resulting from coronary reperfusion. Following reperfusion, there is a rapid intracellular pH shift, disruption of ionic balance, heightened oxidative stress, increased activity of proteolytic enzymes, initiation of inflammatory responses, and activation of several cell death pathways, encompassing apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis. The inflammatory cell death or pyroptosis encompasses the activation of the intracellular multiprotein complex known as the NLRP3 inflammasome. High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are endogenous particles whose components can either promote or mitigate the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. In this comprehensive review, we explore the role of inflammasome activation in the context of MI and provide a detailed analysis of how HDL can modulate this process.

Update of HDL in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease

Epidemiologic evidence supported an inverse association between HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol (HDL-C) levels and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), identifying HDL-C as a major cardiovascular risk factor and postulating diverse HDL vascular- and cardioprotective functions beyond their ability to drive reverse cholesterol transport. However, the failure of several clinical trials aimed at increasing HDL-C in patients with overt cardiovascular disease brought into question whether increasing the cholesterol cargo of HDL was an effective strategy to enhance their protective properties. In parallel, substantial evidence supports that HDLs are complex and heterogeneous particles whose composition is essential for maintaining their protective functions, subsequently strengthening the "HDL quality over quantity" hypothesis. The following state-of-the-art review covers the latest understanding as per the roles of HDL in ASCVD, delves into recent advances in understanding the complexity of HDL particle composition, including proteins, lipids and other HDL-transported components and discusses on the clinical outcomes after the administration of HDL-C raising drugs with particular attention to CETP (cholesteryl ester transfer protein) inhibitors.

Effect of Clinical and Laboratory Parameters on HDL Particle Composition

The functional status of High-Density Lipoprotein (HDLs) is not dependent on the cholesterol content but is closely related to structural and compositional characteristics. We reported the analysis of HDL lipidome in the healthy population and the influence of serum lipids, age, gender and menopausal status on its composition. Our sample comprised 90 healthy subjects aged between 30 and 77 years. HDL lipidome was investigated by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Among serum lipids, triglycerides, apoAI, apoB and the ratio HDL-C/apoAI had a significant influence on HDL lipid composition. Aging was associated with significant aberrations, including an increase in triglyceride content, lysophosphatidylcholine, free cholesterol, and a decrease in esterified cholesterol, phospholipids, and sphingomyelin that may contribute to increased cardiovascular risk. Aging was also associated with an atherogenic fatty acid pattern. Changes occurring in the HDL lipidome between the two genders were more pronounced in the decade from 30 to 39 years of age and over 60 years. The postmenopausal group displayed significant pro-atherogenic changes in HDLs compared to the premenopausal group. The influence of serum lipids and intrinsic factors on HDL lipidome could improve our understanding of the remodeling capacity of HDLs directly related to its functionality and antiatherogenic properties, and also in appropriate clinical research study protocol design. These data demonstrate that NMR analysis can easily follow the subtle alterations of lipoprotein composition due to serum lipid parameters.

Hypercholesterolemia-Induced HDL Dysfunction Can Be Reversed: The Impact of Diet and Statin Treatment in a Preclinical Animal Model

High-density lipoproteins (HDL) undergo adverse remodeling and loss of function in the presence of comorbidities. We assessed the potential of lipid-lowering approaches (diet and rosuvastatin) to rescue hypercholesterolemia-induced HDL dysfunction. Hypercholesterolemia was induced in 32 pigs for 10 days. Then, they randomly received one of the 30-day interventions: (I) hypercholesterolemic (HC) diet; (II) HC diet + rosuvastatin; (III) normocholesterolemic (NC) diet; (IV) NC diet + rosuvastatin. We determined cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC), antioxidant potential, HDL particle number, HDL apolipoprotein content, LDL oxidation, and lipid levels. Hypercholesterolemia time-dependently impaired HDL function (−62% CEC, −11% antioxidant index (AOI); p < 0.01), increased HDL particles numbers 2.8-fold (p < 0.0001), reduced HDL-bound APOM (−23%; p < 0.0001), and increased LDL oxidation 1.7-fold (p < 0.0001). These parameters remained unchanged in animals on HC diet alone up to day 40, while AOI deteriorated up to day 25 (−30%). The switch to NC diet reversed HDL dysfunction, restored apolipoprotein M content and particle numbers, and normalized cholesterol levels at day 40. Rosuvastatin improved HDL, AOI, and apolipoprotein M content. Apolipoprotein A-I and apolipoprotein C-III remained unchanged. Lowering LDL-C levels with a low-fat diet rescues HDL CEC and antioxidant potential, while the addition of rosuvastatin enhances HDL antioxidant capacity in a pig model of hypercholesterolemia. Both strategies restore HDL-bound apolipoprotein M content.