Application of Biosensors for Detection of Pathogenic Food Bacteria: A Review

Biosensor in smart food traceability system for food safety and security

The burden of food contamination and food wastage has significantly contributed to the increased prevalence of foodborne disease and food insecurity all over the world. Due to this, there is an urgent need to develop a smarter food traceability system. Recent advancements in biosensors that are easy-to-use, rapid yet selective, sensitive, and cost-effective have shown great promise to meet the critical demand for onsite and immediate diagnosis and treatment of food safety and quality control (i.e. point-of-care technology). This review article focuses on the recent development of different biosensors for food safety and quality monitoring. In general, the application of biosensors in agriculture (i.e. pre-harvest stage) for early detection and routine control of plant infections or stress is discussed. Afterward, a more detailed advancement of biosensors in the past five years within the food supply chain (i.e. post-harvest stage) to detect different types of food contaminants and smart food packaging is highlighted. A section that discusses perspectives for the development of biosensors in the future is also mentioned.

Machine learning-assisted liquid crystal-based aptasensor for the specific detection of whole-cell Escherichia coli in water and food

We have developed a rapid, facile liquid crystal (LC)-based aptasensor for E. coli detection in water and juice samples. A textile grid-anchored LC platform was used with specific aptamers adsorbed via a cationic surfactant, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), on the LC surface. The presence of E. coli dissociates the aptamers from CTAB and restores the dark signal induced by the surfactant. Using polarized microscopy, the images of the LCs in the presence of various concentrations of E. coli were captured and analyzed using image analysis and machine learning (ML). The artificial neural networks (ANN) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) rendered the best results for water samples (R2 = 0.986 and RMSE = 0.209) and juice samples (R2 = 0.976 and RMSE = 0.262), respectively. The platform was able to detect E. coli with a detection limit (LOD) of 6 CFU mL-1.

Bacteriophage-Based Bioanalysis

Bacteriophages, which are viral predators of bacteria, have evolved to efficiently recognize, bind, infect, and lyse their host, resulting in the release of tens to hundreds of propagated viruses. These abilities have attracted biosensor developers who have developed new methods to detect bacteria. Recently, several comprehensive reviews have covered many of the advances made regarding the performance of phage-based biosensors. Therefore, in this review, we first describe the landscape of phage-based biosensors and then cover advances in other aspects of phage biology and engineering that can be used to make high-impact contributions to biosensor development. Many of these advances are in fields adjacent to analytical chemistry such as synthetic biology, machine learning, and genetic engineering and will allow those looking to develop phage-based biosensors to start taking alternative approaches, such as a bottom-up design and synthesis of custom phages with the singular task of detecting their host.

Evaluation of Simultaneous Growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes in Ground Beef Samples in Different Growth Media

Several multiplex approaches for the simultaneous detection of pathogens in food have been developed in recent years, but the use of a single enrichment medium remains a problem. In this study, six enrichment broths (five non-selective media, tryptic soy broth (TSB), brain heart infusion broth (BHI), buffered peptone water (BPW), universal pre-enrichment broth (UPB), no. 17 broth, and a selective, Salmonella Escherichia Listeria broth (SEL)), were studied for the simultaneous detection of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and L. monocytogenes, to validate the suitable enrichment broth to be used for the detection methods. Different ratios of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and L. monocytogenes were used. Almost all non-selective broths evaluated in this study showed similar growth parameters and profiles among each other. The only selective enrichment broth under analysis (SEL) showed distinct growth features compared to the non-selective media, allowing for a slower but balanced growth of the three pathogens, which could be beneficial in preventing the overgrowth of fast-growing bacteria. In addition, when tested in ground beef samples, SEL broth seems to be the most distinctive medium with a balanced growth pattern observed for the three pathogens. Overall, this study is intended to provide the basis for the selection of suitable enrichment broths according to the technology detection to be used, the desired time of enrichment, and the expected balanced concentration of pathogens.

A comprehensive review on novel synthetic foods: Potential risk factors, detection strategies, and processing technologies

Nowadays, the food industry is facing challenges due to the simultaneous rise in global warming, population, and food consumption. As the integration of synthetic biology and food science, novel synthetic foods have obtained high attention to address these issues. However, these novel foods may cause potential risks related to human health. Four types of novel synthetic foods, including plant-based foods, cultured meat, fermented foods, and microalgae-based foods, were reviewed in the study. The original food sources, consumer acceptance, advantages and disadvantages of these foods were discussed. Furthermore, potential risk factors, such as nutritional, biological, and chemical risk factors, associated with these foods were described and analyzed. Additionally, the current detection methods (e.g., enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, biosensors, chromatography, polymerase chain reaction, isothermal amplification, and microfluidic technology) and processing technologies (e.g., microwave treatment, ohmic heating, steam explosion, high hydrostatic pressure, ultrasound, cold plasma, and supercritical carbon dioxide) were reviewed and discussed critically. Nonetheless, it is crucial to continue innovating and developing new detection and processing technologies to effectively evaluate these novel synthetic foods and ensure their safety. Finally, approaches to enhance the quality of these foods were briefly presented. It will provide insights into the development and management of novel synthetic foods for food industry.

Bio-derived carbon-based materials for sustainable environmental remediation and wastewater treatment

Biosynthesized nanocomposites, particularly those incorporating carbon-based materials, exhibit exceptional tunability and multifunctionality, surpassing the capabilities of conventional materials in these aspects. Developing practical solutions is critical to address environmental toxins from pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, pesticides, and dyes. Biomass waste is a readily available carbon source, which emerges as a promising material for producing biochar due to its inherent advantages: abundance, low cost, and environmentally friendly nature. This distribution mainly uses carbon-based materials (CBMs) and biomass waste in wastewater treatment. This review paper investigates several CBM types, including carbon aerogels, nanotubes, graphene, and activated carbon. The development of bio-derived carbon-based nanomaterials are discussed, along with the properties and composition of carbon materials derived from biomass waste and various cycles, such as photodegradation, adsorption, and high-level oxidation processes for natural remediation. In conclusion, this review examines the challenges associated with biochar utilization, including cost, recovery, and practical implementation.

A Comprehensive Review of Innovative Paradigms in Microbial Detection and Antimicrobial Resistance: Beyond Traditional Cultural Methods

Microbial detection and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance are critical components of public health efforts to combat infectious diseases and preserve the efficacy of antimicrobial agents. While foundational in microbial identification, traditional cultural methods are often laborious, time-consuming, and limited in their ability to detect AMR markers. In response to these challenges, innovative paradigms have emerged, leveraging advances in molecular biology, genomics, proteomics, nanotechnology, and bioinformatics. This comprehensive review provides an overview of innovative approaches beyond traditional cultural methods for microbial detection and AMR surveillance. Molecular-based techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and next-generation sequencing (NGS) offer enhanced sensitivity and specificity, enabling the rapid identification of microbial pathogens and AMR determinants. Mass spectrometry-based methods provide rapid and accurate detection of microbial biomarkers, including matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) and biosensor technologies. Nanotechnology approaches, such as nanoparticle-based assays and nanopore sequencing, offer novel platforms for sensitive and label-free detection of pathogens and AMR markers. Embracing these innovative paradigms holds immense promise for improving disease diagnosis, antibiotic stewardship, and AMR containment efforts. However, challenges such as cost, standardization, and integration with existing healthcare systems must be addressed to realize the full potential of these technologies. By fostering interdisciplinary collaboration and innovation, we can strengthen our ability to detect, monitor, and combat AMR, safeguarding public health for generations.

Multimodal Biosensing of Foodborne Pathogens

Microbial foodborne pathogens present significant challenges to public health and the food industry, requiring rapid and accurate detection methods to prevent infections and ensure food safety. Conventional single biosensing techniques often exhibit limitations in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and rapidity. In response, there has been a growing interest in multimodal biosensing approaches that combine multiple sensing techniques to enhance the efficacy, accuracy, and precision in detecting these pathogens. This review investigates the current state of multimodal biosensing technologies and their potential applications within the food industry. Various multimodal biosensing platforms, such as opto-electrochemical, optical nanomaterial, multiple nanomaterial-based systems, hybrid biosensing microfluidics, and microfabrication techniques are discussed. The review provides an in-depth analysis of the advantages, challenges, and future prospects of multimodal biosensing for foodborne pathogens, emphasizing its transformative potential for food safety and public health. This comprehensive analysis aims to contribute to the development of innovative strategies for combating foodborne infections and ensuring the reliability of the global food supply chain.

Application of Biosensors for the Detection of Mycotoxins for the Improvement of Food Safety

Mycotoxins, secondary metabolites synthesized by various filamentous fungi genera such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Claviceps, and Alternaria, are potent toxic compounds. Their production is contingent upon specific environmental conditions during fungal growth. Arising as byproducts of fungal metabolic processes, mycotoxins exhibit significant toxicity, posing risks of acute or chronic health complications. Recognized as highly hazardous food contaminants, mycotoxins present a pervasive threat throughout the agricultural and food processing continuum, from plant cultivation to post-harvest stages. The imperative to adhere to principles of good agricultural and industrial practice is underscored to mitigate the risk of mycotoxin contamination in food production. In the domain of food safety, the rapid and efficient detection of mycotoxins holds paramount significance. This paper delineates conventional and commercial methodologies for mycotoxin detection in ensuring food safety, encompassing techniques like liquid chromatography, immunoassays, and test strips, with a significant emphasis on the role of electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensors, which are known for their high sensitivity and specificity. These are categorized into antibody-, and aptamer-based, as well as molecular imprinting methods. This paper examines the latest advancements in biosensors for mycotoxin testing, with a particular focus on their amplification strategies and operating mechanisms.

Virtual screening and site-directed mutagenesis-derived aptamers for precise Salmonella typhimurium prediction: emphasizing OmpD targeting and G-quadruplex stability

The efficient detection of the foodborne pathogen Salmonella typhimurium has historically been hampered by the constraints of traditional methods, characterized by protracted culture periods and intricate DNA extraction processes for PCR. To address this, our research innovatively focuses on the crucial and relatively uncharted virulence factor, the Outer Membrane Protein D (OmpD) in Salmonella typhimurium. By harmoniously integrating the power of virtual screening and site-directed mutagenesis, we unveiled aptamers exhibiting marked specificity for OmpD. Among these, aptamer 7ZQS stands out with its heightened binding affinity. Capitalizing on this foundation, we further engineered a repertoire of mutant aptamers, wherein APT6 distinguished itself, reflecting unmatched stability and specificity. Our rigorous validation, underpinned by cutting-edge bioinformatics tools, amplifies the prowess of APT6 in discerning and binding OmpD across an array of Salmonella typhimurium strains. This study illuminates a transformative approach to the prompt and accurate detection of Salmonella typhimurium, potentially redefining boundaries in applied analytical chemistry and bolstering diagnostic precision across diverse research and clinical domains.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Research progress of metal-organic framework nanozymes in bacterial sensing, detection, and treatment

The high efficiency and specificity of enzymes make them play an important role in life activities, but the high cost, low stability and high sensitivity of natural enzymes severely restrict their application. In recent years, nanozymes have become convincing alternatives to natural enzymes, finding utility across diverse domains, including biosensing, antibacterial interventions, cancer treatment, and environmental preservation. Nanozymes are characterized by their remarkable attributes, encompassing high stability, cost-effectiveness and robust catalytic activity. Within the contemporary scientific landscape, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have garnered considerable attention, primarily due to their versatile applications, spanning catalysis. Notably, MOFs serve as scaffolds for the development of nanozymes, particularly in the context of bacterial detection and treatment. This paper presents a comprehensive review of recent literature pertaining to MOFs and their pivotal role in bacterial detection and treatment. We explored the limitations and prospects for the development of MOF-based nanozymes as a platform for bacterial detection and therapy, and anticipate their great potential and broader clinical applications in addressing medical challenges.

The effect of probe density coverage on the detection of oenological tannins in quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) experiments

BACKGROUND

Polyphenols are a group of compounds found in grapes, musts, and wines. Their levels are crucial for grape ripening, proper must fermentation, and final wine characteristics. Standard chemical analysis is commonly used to detect these compounds, but it is costly, time consuming, and requires specialized laboratories and operators. To address this, this study explores a functionalized acoustic sensor for detecting oenological polyphenols.

RESULTS

The method involves utilizing a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) to detect the target analyte by using a gelatin-based probe layer. The sensor is functionalized by optimizing the probe coverage density to maximize its performance. This is achieved by using 12-mercaptododecanoic acid (12-MCA) to immobilize the probe onto the gold sensor surface, and dithiothreitol (DTT) as a reducing and competitive binding agent. The concentration of 12-MCA and DTT in the solutions is varied to control the probe density. QCM-D measurements demonstrate that the probe density can be effectively adjusted using this approach, ranging from 0.2 × 1013 to 2 × 1013 molecules cm-2 . This study also investigates the interaction between the probe and tannins, confirming the ability of the sensor to detect them. Interestingly, the lower probe coverage achieves higher detection signals when normalized to probe immobilization signals. Moreover, significant changes in mechanical properties of the functionalization layer are observed after the interaction with samples.

CONCLUSION

The combination of QCM-D with gelatin functionalization holds great promise for future applications in the wine industry. It offers real-time monitoring capabilities, requires minimal sample preparation, and provides high sensitivity for quality control purposes. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

New insights into the roles of fungi and bacteria in the development of medicinal plant

BACKGROUND

The interaction between microorganisms and medicinal plants is a popular topic. Previous studies consistently reported that microorganisms were mainly considered pathogens or contaminants. However, with the development of microbial detection technology, it has been demonstrated that fungi and bacteria affect beneficially the medicinal plant production chain.

AIM OF REVIEW

Microorganisms greatly affect medicinal plants, with microbial biosynthesis a high regarded topic in medicinal plant-microbial interactions. However, it lacks a systematic review discussing this relationship. Current microbial detection technologies also have certain advantages and disadvantages, it is essential to compare the characteristics of various technologies.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

This review first illustrates the role of fungi and bacteria in various medicinal plant production procedures, discusses the development of microbial detection and identification technologies in recent years, and concludes with microbial biosynthesis of natural products. The relationship between fungi, bacteria, and medicinal plants is discussed comprehensively. We also propose a future research model and direction for further studies.

Aptasensors: employing molecular probes for precise medical diagnostics and drug monitoring

Accurate detection and monitoring of therapeutic drug levels are vital for effective patient care and treatment management. Aptamers, composed of single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules, are integral components of biosensors designed for both qualitative and quantitative detection of biological samples. Aptasensors play crucial roles in target identification, validation, detection of drug-target interactions and screening potential of drug candidates. This review focuses on the pivotal role of aptasensors in early disease detection, particularly in identifying biomarkers associated with various diseases such as cancer, infectious diseases and cardiovascular disorders. Aptasensors have demonstrated exceptional potential in enhancing disease diagnostics and monitoring therapeutic drug levels. Aptamer-based biosensors represent a transformative technology in the field of healthcare, enabling precise diagnostics, drug monitoring and disease detection.

Combining Feature Selection Techniques and Neurofuzzy Systems for the Prediction of Total Viable Counts in Beef Fillets Using Multispectral Imaging

In the food industry, quality and safety issues are associated with consumers' health condition. There is a growing interest in applying various noninvasive sensorial techniques to obtain quickly quality attributes. One of them, hyperspectral/multispectral imaging technique has been extensively used for inspection of various food products. In this paper, a stacking-based ensemble prediction system has been developed for the prediction of total viable counts of microorganisms in beef fillet samples, an essential cause to meat spoilage, utilizing multispectral imaging information. As the selection of important wavelengths from the multispectral imaging system is considered as an essential stage to the prediction scheme, a features fusion approach has been also explored, by combining wavelengths extracted from various feature selection techniques. Ensemble sub-components include two advanced clustering-based neuro-fuzzy network prediction models, one utilizing information from average reflectance values, while the other one from the standard deviation of the pixels' intensity per wavelength. The performances of neurofuzzy models were compared against established regression algorithms such as multilayer perceptron, support vector machines and partial least squares. Obtained results confirmed the validity of the proposed hypothesis to utilize a combination of feature selection methods with neurofuzzy models in order to assess the microbiological quality of meat products.

Optical biosensors for environmental monitoring: Recent advances and future perspectives in bacterial detection

The environmental contamination due to bacterial proliferation vs their identification is the major deciding factor in the spread of diseases leading to pandemics. The advent of drug-resistant pathogenic contaminants in our environment has further added to the load of complications associated with their diagnosis and treatment. Obstructing the spread of such infections, prioritizes the expansion of sensor-based diagnostics, effectuating, a sturdy detection of disease-causing microbes, contaminating our surroundings in shortest possible time, with minimal expenditure. Among many sensors known, optical biosensors promote the recognition of pathogens befouling the environment through a comparatively intuitive, brisk, portable, multitudinous, and thrifty approach. This article reviews the recent progresses in optical biosensor-based systems for effective environmental monitoring. The technical and methodological perspectives of fundamental optical-sensing platforms are reviewed, combined with the pros and cons of every procedure. Eventually, the obstacles lying in the path of development of an effective optical biosensor device for bio-monitoring and its future perspectives are highlighted in the present work.

Dual-channel biosensor for simultaneous detection of S. typhimurium and L. monocytogenes using nanotags of gold nanoparticles loaded metal-organic frameworks

Simultaneous detection of multiple foodborne pathogens is of great importance for ensuring food safety. Herein, we present a sensitive dual-channel electrochemical biosensor based on copper metal organic frameworks (CuMOF) and lead metal organic framework (PbMOF) for simultaneous detection of Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) and Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes). The MOF-based nanotags were prepared by functionalizing gold nanoparticles loaded CuMOF (Au@CuMOF) and PbMOF (Au@PbMOF) with signal DNA sequences 1 (sDNA1) and sDNA2, respectively. By selecting invA of S. typhimurium and inlA gene of L. monocytogenes as targe sequences, a sandwich-typed dual-channel biosensor was developed on glassy carbon electrodes (GCE) through hybridization reactions. The sensitive detection of S. typhimurium and L. monocytogenes was achieved by the direct differential pulse voltametric (DPV) signals of Cu2+ and Pb2+. Under optimal conditions, channel 1 of the biosensor showed linear range for invA gene of S. typhimurium in 1 × 10-14-1 × 10-8 M with low detection limit (LOD) of 3.42 × 10-16 M (S/N = 3), and channel 2 of the biosensor showed linear range for inlA gene of L. monocytogenes in 1 × 10-13-1 × 10-8 M with LOD of 6.11 × 10-15 M (S/N = 3). The dual-channel biosensor showed good selectivity which were used to detect S. typhimurium with linear range of 5-1.0 × 104 CFU mL-1 (LOD of 2.33 CFU mL-1), and L. monocytogenes with linear range of 10 - 1.0 × 104 CFU mL-1 (LOD of 6.61 CFU mL-1).

Emerging Applications of Nanobiosensors in Pathogen Detection in Water and Food

Food and waterborne illnesses are still a major concern in health and food safety areas. Every year, almost 0.42 million and 2.2 million deaths related to food and waterborne illness are reported worldwide, respectively. In foodborne pathogens, bacteria such as Salmonella, Shiga-toxin producer Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and Listeria monocytogenes are considered to be high-concern pathogens. High-concern waterborne pathogens are Vibrio cholerae, leptospirosis, Schistosoma mansoni, and Schistosima japonicum, among others. Despite the major efforts of food and water quality control to monitor the presence of these pathogens of concern in these kinds of sources, foodborne and waterborne illness occurrence is still high globally. For these reasons, the development of novel and faster pathogen-detection methods applicable to real-time surveillance strategies are required. Methods based on biosensor devices have emerged as novel tools for faster detection of food and water pathogens, in contrast to traditional methods that are usually time-consuming and are unsuitable for large-scale monitoring. Biosensor devices can be summarized as devices that use biochemical reactions with a biorecognition section (isolated enzymes, antibodies, tissues, genetic materials, or aptamers) to detect pathogens. In most cases, biosensors are based on the correlation of electrical, thermal, or optical signals in the presence of pathogen biomarkers. The application of nano and molecular technologies allows the identification of pathogens in a faster and high-sensibility manner, at extremely low-pathogen concentrations. In fact, the integration of gold, silver, iron, and magnetic nanoparticles (NP) in biosensors has demonstrated an improvement in their detection functionality. The present review summarizes the principal application of nanomaterials and biosensor-based devices for the detection of pathogens in food and water samples. Additionally, it highlights the improvement of biosensor devices through nanomaterials. Nanomaterials offer unique advantages for pathogen detection. The nanoscale and high specific surface area allows for more effective interaction with pathogenic agents, enhancing the sensitivity and selectivity of the biosensors. Finally, biosensors' capability to functionalize with specific molecules such as antibodies or nucleic acids facilitates the specific detection of the target pathogens.

Phage-Based Biosensing for Rapid and Specific Detection of Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a major foodborne pathogen. Rapid and specific detection is crucial for controlling staphylococcal food poisoning. This study reported a Staphylococcus phage named LSA2302 showing great potential for applications in the rapid detection of S. aureus. Its biological characteristics were identified, including growth properties and stability under different pH and temperature conditions. The genomic analysis revealed that the phage has no genes associated with pathogenicity or drug resistance. Then, the phage-functionalized magnetic beads (pMB), serving as a biological recognition element, were integrated with ATP bioluminescence assays to establish a biosensing method for S. aureus detection. The pMB enrichment brought high specificity and a tenfold increase in analytical sensitivity during detection. The whole detection process could be completed within 30 min, with a broad linear range of 1 × 104 to 1 × 108 CFU/mL and a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.43 × 103 CFU/mL. After a 2 h pre-cultivation, this method is capable of detecting bacteria as low as 1 CFU/mL. The recoveries of S. aureus in spiked skim milk and chicken samples were 81.07% to 99.17% and 86.98% to 104.62%, respectively. Our results indicated that phage-based biosensing can contribute to the detection of target pathogens in foods.

Bio-barcode assay: A useful technology for ultrasensitive and logic-controlled specific detection in food safety: A review

Food safety is one of the greatest public health challenges. Developing ultrasensitive detection methods for analytes at ultra-trace levels is, therefore, essential. In recent years, the bio-barcode assay (BCA) has emerged as an effective ultrasensitive detection strategy that is based on the indirect amplification of various DNA probes. This review systematically summarizes the progress of fluorescence, PCR, and colorimetry-based BCA methods for the detection of various contaminants, including pathogenic bacteria, toxins, pesticides, antibiotics, and other chemical substances in food in over 120 research papers. Current challenges, including long experimental times and strict storage conditions, and the prospects for the application of BCA in biomedicine and environmental analyses, have also been discussed herein.

Development of portable sensor for the detection of bacteria: effect of gold nanoparticle size, effective surface area, and interparticle spacing upon sensing interface

In this study, systematic development of a portable sensor for the rapid detection of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Exiguobacterium aurantiacum (E. aurantiacum) was reported. A conductive glass was utilized as a substrate and developed the electrode patterns on it. Trisodium citrate (TSC) and chitosan-stabilized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) (CHI-AuNP-TSC) and chitosan-stabilized AuNPs (CHI-AuNP) were synthesized and utilized as a sensing interface. The morphology, crystallinity, optical properties, chemical structures, and surface properties of immobilized AuNPs on the sensing electrodes were investigated. The sensing performance of the fabricated sensor was evaluated by using an electrochemical method to observe the current changes in cyclic voltammetric responses. The CHI-AuNP-TSC electrode has higher sensitivity toward E. coli than CHI-AuNP with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.07 CFU/mL. TSC in the AuNPs synthesis process played a vital role in the particle size, the interparticle spacing, the sensor's effective surface area, and the presence of CHI around AuNPs, thus enhancing the sensing performance. Moreover, post-analysis of the fabricated sensor surface exhibited the sensor stability and the interaction between bacteria and the sensor surface. The sensing results showed a promising potential for rapid detection using a portable sensor for various water and food-borne pathogenic diseases.

Synthetic biology-inspired cell engineering in diagnosis, treatment, and drug development

The fast-developing synthetic biology (SB) has provided many genetic tools to reprogram and engineer cells for improved performance, novel functions, and diverse applications. Such cell engineering resources can play a critical role in the research and development of novel therapeutics. However, there are certain limitations and challenges in applying genetically engineered cells in clinical practice. This literature review updates the recent advances in biomedical applications, including diagnosis, treatment, and drug development, of SB-inspired cell engineering. It describes technologies and relevant examples in a clinical and experimental setup that may significantly impact the biomedicine field. At last, this review concludes the results with future directions to optimize the performances of synthetic gene circuits to regulate the therapeutic activities of cell-based tools in specific diseases.

Effect of high-voltage electrospray on the inactivation, induced damage and growth of microorganisms and flavour components of honey raspberry wine

Electrospray (ES) is a new non-thermal processing technology for pasteurising liquid foods. This study aimed to investigate the effects of ES on the cell structure and function of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and then compare the effects of ES and heat treatment (HT) on microbial inactivation and flavour composition in honey raspberry wine. First, we found that the inactivation effect of ES treatment on the three microorganisms was significantly influenced by the voltage intensity. The degree of damage to the cellular structures and functions of the three microorganisms increased with increasing voltage. Second, the environment in which the microorganisms were present significantly influenced the ES pasteurisation effect. Pasteurisation by ES was better when the three microorganisms were in honey raspberry wine than in saline. Finally, the total number of colonies in honey raspberry wine was reduced from 4.50 to 2.03 log colony forming units/mL after ES treatment, and the wine had good stability during storage (84 days at 4 °C). In the honey raspberry wine, the contents of the main flavour substances (ketones and esters) did not change significantly after ES treatment, but HT decreased the content of esters and ketones by 13.5 % and 75.4 %, respectively.

Metal-enhanced bioluminescence by detergent stabilized Ag and Au nanoparticles

The assessment of microbial contamination is an important aspect of ensuring human food safety. One of the modern methods for the evaluation of microbial contamination is the estimation of the amount of ATP using firefly luciferase. In this case, the choice of an effective composition of the extraction buffer is crucial. In this study, we examined the influence of silver and gold nanoparticles on the firefly bioluminescent system during the ATP extraction process. It was found that gold nanoparticles stabilized with benzalkonium chloride and Triton X-100 enhanced bioluminescent system signal intensity due to metal-enhanced bioluminescence. Moreover, silver and gold nanoparticles could be used as extracting agents. So, using gold nanoparticles stabilized with BAC and Triton X-100 as ATP extraction agents with further detection by a bioluminescent system makes it possible to develop an ATP biosensor with higher sensitivity.

Stimulus-Responsive DNA Hydrogel Biosensors for Food Safety Detection

Food safety has always been a major global challenge to human health and the effective detection of harmful substances in food can reduce the risk to human health. However, the food industry has been plagued by a lack of effective and sensitive safety monitoring methods due to the tension between the cost and effectiveness of monitoring. DNA-based hydrogels combine the advantages of biocompatibility, programmability, the molecular recognition of DNA molecules, and the hydrophilicity of hydrogels, making them a hotspot in the research field of new nanomaterials. The stimulus response property greatly broadens the function and application range of DNA hydrogel. In recent years, DNA hydrogels based on stimulus-responsive mechanisms have been widely applied in the field of biosensing for the detection of a variety of target substances, including various food contaminants. In this review, we describe the recent advances in the preparation of stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels, highlighting the progress of its application in food safety detection. Finally, we also discuss the challenges and future application of stimulus-responsive DNA hydrogels.

Petri-plate, bacteria, and laser optical scattering sensor

Classical microbiology has paved the path forward for the development of modern biotechnology and microbial biosensing platforms. Microbial culturing and isolation using the Petri plate revolutionized the field of microbiology. In 1887, Julius Richard Petri invented possibly the most important tool in microbiology, the Petri plate, which continues to have a profound impact not only on reliably isolating, identifying, and studying microorganisms but also manipulating a microbe to study gene expression, virulence properties, antibiotic resistance, and production of drugs, enzymes, and foods. Before the recent advances in gene sequencing, microbial identification for diagnosis relied upon the hierarchal testing of a pure culture isolate. Direct detection and identification of isolated bacterial colonies on a Petri plate with a sensing device has the potential for revolutionizing further development in microbiology including gene sequencing, pathogenicity study, antibiotic susceptibility testing , and for characterizing industrially beneficial traits. An optical scattering sensor designated BARDOT (bacterial rapid detection using optical scattering technology) that uses a red-diode laser, developed at the beginning of the 21^st century at Purdue University, some 220 years after the Petri-plate discovery can identify and study bacteria directly on the plate as a diagnostic tool akin to Raman scattering and hyperspectral imaging systems for application in clinical and food microbiology laboratories.

Electrospun hybrid nanofibers: Fabrication, characterization, and biomedical applications

Nanotechnology is one of the most promising technologies available today, holding tremendous potential for biomedical and healthcare applications. In this field, there is an increasing interest in the use of polymeric micro/nanofibers for the construction of biomedical structures. Due to its potential applications in various fields like pharmaceutics and biomedicine, the electrospinning process has gained considerable attention for producing nano-sized fibers. Electrospun nanofiber membranes have been used in drug delivery, controlled drug release, regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, biosensing, stent coating, implants, cosmetics, facial masks, and theranostics. Various natural and synthetic polymers have been successfully electrospun into ultrafine fibers. Although biopolymers demonstrate exciting properties such as good biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and biodegradability, they possess poor mechanical properties. Hybrid nanofibers from bio and synthetic nanofibers combine the characteristics of biopolymers with those of synthetic polymers, such as high mechanical strength and stability. In addition, a variety of functional agents, such as nanoparticles and biomolecules, can be incorporated into nanofibers to create multifunctional hybrid nanofibers. Due to the remarkable properties of hybrid nanofibers, the latest research on the unique properties of hybrid nanofibers is highlighted in this study. Moreover, various established hybrid nanofiber fabrication techniques, especially the electrospinning-based methods, as well as emerging strategies for the characterization of hybrid nanofibers, are summarized. Finally, the development and application of electrospun hybrid nanofibers in biomedical applications are discussed.

Recent trends and developments of PCR-based methods for the detection of food-borne Salmonella bacteria and Norovirus

In recent years, rapid detection methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) have been continuously developed to improve the detection of food-borne pathogens in food samples. The recent developments of PCR and qPCR in the detection and identification of these food-borne pathogens are described and elaborated throughout this review. Specifically, further developments and improvements of qPCR are discussed in detecting Salmonella and norovirus. Promising advances in these molecular detection methods have been widely used to prevent human food-borne illnesses and death caused by the food-borne pathogens. In addition, this review presents the limitations and challenges of the detection methods which include conventional culture method and conventional PCR method in detecting Salmonella and norovirus. Furthermore, several advances of qPCR such as viability PCR (vPCR) and digital PCR (dPCR) have been discussed in the detection of Salmonella and norovirus. Good practice of analysis of the food-borne pathogens and other contaminants in the food industry as well as the advancement of molecular detection methods will help improve and ensure food safety and food quality.

Molecular Methods for Identification and Quantification of Foodborne Pathogens

Foodborne pathogens that enter the human food chain are a significant threat worldwide to human health. Timely and cost-effective detection of them became challenging for many countries that want to improve their detection and control of foodborne illness. We summarize simple, rapid, specific, and highly effective molecular technology that is used to detect and identify foodborne pathogens, including polymerase chain reaction, isothermal amplification, loop-mediated isothermal amplification, nucleic acid sequence-based amplification, as well as gene chip and gene probe technology. The principles of their operation, the research supporting their application, and the advantages and disadvantages of each technology are summarized.

Toward intelligent food packaging of biosensor and film substrate for monitoring foodborne microorganisms: A review of recent advancements

Microorganisms in food do harms to human. They can cause serious adverse reactions and sometimes even death. So it is an urgent matter to find an effective method to control them. The research of intelligent- biosensor packaging is in the ascendant in recent years, which is mainly promoted by reflecting on food safety and reducing resource waste. Intelligent biosensor-packaging is an instant and efficient intelligent packaging technology, which can directly and scientifically manifest the quality of food without complex operation. In this review, the purposes of providing relevant information on intelligent biosensor-packaging are reviewed, such as types of biosensors for monitoring foodborne microorganism, the suitable material for intelligent biosensor-packaging and design and fabrication of intelligent biosensor-packaging. The potential of intelligent biosensor-packaging in the detection of foodborne microorganisms is emphasized. The challenges and directions of the intelligent biosensor-packaging in the detection of foodborne pathogens are discussed. With the development of science and technology in the future, the intelligent biosensor-packaging should be commercialized in a real sense. And it is expected that commercial products can be manufactured in the future, which will provide a far-reaching approach in food safety and food prevention. HighlightsSeveral biosensors are suitable for the detection of food microorganisms.Plastic polymer is an excellent choice for the construction of intelligent biosensor packaging.Design and fabrication can lay the foundation for intelligent-biosensor packaging.Intelligent biosensor-packaging can realize fast and real-time detection of microorganisms in food.

An Electrochemical Aptasensor Integrating Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework for Highly Selective Detection of Bioaerosols

Bioaerosols are the biological materials in the air, which may cause a continuous threat to human health. However, there are many challenges in monitoring bioaerosols such as lack of sensitivity and selectivity. Herein, we synthesized a series of nanohybrids containing zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) and covalent organic frameworks (COFs) to construct an electrochemical aptasensor for detecting adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a biomarker for bioaerosols. The synthesized nanohybrids can not only improve the selectivity of aptasensor because of the original crystal and chemical features of ZIF-67, but also boost its sensitivity due to the excellent conductivity of COFs. After optimizing the nanohybrids, the novel developed sensing platform achieved highly selective detection of ATP with an excellent detection limit of 0.11 nM in a wide linear range from 0.1 nM to 100 nM. Furthermore, this assay was applied to detect bioaerosols in real air samples, and the result showed a positive correlation with that of the culturing-based method, suggesting its potential applicability.

Advances in magnetic nanoparticles for the separation of foodborne pathogens: Recognition, separation strategy, and application

Foodborne pathogens contamination is one of the main sources of food safety problems. Although the existing detection methods have been developed for a long time, the complexity of food samples is still the main factor affecting the detection time and sensitivity, and the rapid separation and enrichment of pathogens is still an objective to be studied. Magnetic separation strategy based on magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) is considered to be an effective tool for rapid separation and enrichment of foodborne pathogens in food. Therefore, this study comprehensively reviews the development of MNPs in the separation of foodborne pathogens over the past decade. First, various biorecognition reagents for identification of foodborne pathogens and their modifications on the surface of MNPs are introduced. Then, the factors affecting the separation of foodborne pathogens, including the size of MNPs, modification methods, separation strategies and separation forms are discussed. Finally, the application of MNPs in integrated detection methods is reviewed. Moreover, current challenges and prospects of MNPs for the analysis of foodborne pathogens are discussed. Further research should focus on the design of multifunctional MNPs, the processing of large-scale samples, the simultaneous analysis of multiple targets, and the development of all-in-one small analytical device with separation and detection.

Challenges in assessing the quality of fruit juices: Intervening role of biosensors

The quality of packaged fruit juices is affected during their processing, packaging and storage that might cause deteriorative biological, chemical and physical alterations. Consumption of spoiled juices, either from biological or non-biological sources can pose a potential health hazard for the consumers. Sensitive and reliable methods are required to ensure the quality of fruit juices. Standard analytical methods such as chromatography, spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and titration, that require sophisticated equipment and expertise, are traditionally used to assess the quality of fruit juices. Using biosensors, that are simple, portable and rapid presents a promising alternative to the tedious analytical methods for the detection of various degradation and spoilage indicators formed in the packaged fruit juices. Here, we review the challenges in maintaining the quality of fruit juices and the recent developments in techniques and biosensors for quick analysis of fruit juice components.

Sustainable approaches towards green synthesis of TiO2 nanomaterials and their applications in photo-catalysis mediated sensingtomonitor environmental pollutions

Nanomaterials are gaining enormous interests owing to their novel applications that have been explored nearly in every field of our contemporary society. In this scenario, preparations of nanomaterials following green routes have attracted widespread attention in terms of sustainable, reliable and environmentally friendly practice to produce diverse nanostructures. In this review, we summarized the fundamental processes and mechanisms of green synthesis approaches of TiO₂ NPs. We explore the role of plants and microbes as natural bioresources to prepare TiO₂ NPs. Particularly, focused have been made to explore the potential of TiO₂ based nanomaterials to design variety of sensing platforms by exploiting the photo-catalysis efficiency under the influence of light source. Such types of sensing can of massive importance to monitor the environmental pollutions and thereby to invent advanced strategies to remediate hazardous pollutants to offer clean environment.

Recent advances on rapid detection and remediation of environmental pollutants utilizing nanomaterials-based (bio)sensors

Environmental safety has become a significant issue for the safety of living species, humans, and the ecosystem as a consequence of the harmful and detrimental consequences of various pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals, dyes, etc., emitted into the surroundings. To resolve this issue, various efforts, legal acts, scientific and technological perspectives have been embraced, but still remain a global concern. Furthermore, due to non-portability, complex detection, and inappropriate on-site recognition of sophisticated laboratory tools, the real-time analysis of these environmental contaminants has been limited. As a result of innovative nano bioconjugation and nanofabrication techniques, nanotechnology enables enhanced nanomaterials (NMs) based (bio)sensors demonstrating ultra-sensitivity and a short detection time in real-time analysis, as well as superior sensitivity, reliability, and selectivity have been developed. Several researchers have demonstrated the potent detection of pollutants such as Hg²⁺ ion by the usage of AgNP-MD in electronic and optoelectronic methods with a detection limit of 5-45 μM which is quite significant. Taking into consideration of such tremendous research, herein, the authors have highlighted 21st-century strategies towards NMs based biosensor technology for pollutants detection, including nano biosensors, enzyme-based biosensors, electrochemical-based biosensors, carbon-based biosensors and optical biosensors for on-site identification and detection of target analytes. This article will provide a brief overview of the significance of utilizing NMs-based biosensors for the detection of a diverse array of hazardous pollutants, and a thorough understanding of the detection processes of NMs-based biosensors, as well as the limit of quantification (LOQ) and limit of detection (LOD) values, rendering researchers to focus on the world's need for a sustainable earth.

Research progress on detection techniques for point-of-care testing of foodborne pathogens

The global burden of foodborne disease is enormous and foodborne pathogens are the leading cause of human illnesses. The detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria has become a research hotspot in recent years. Rapid detection methods based on immunoassay, molecular biology, microfluidic chip, metabolism, biosensor, and mass spectrometry have developed rapidly and become the main methods for the detection of foodborne pathogens. This study reviewed a variety of rapid detection methods in recent years. The research advances are introduced based on the above technical methods for the rapid detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria. The study also discusses the limitations of existing methods and their advantages and future development direction, to form an overall understanding of the detection methods, and for point-of-care testing (POCT) applications to accurately and rapidly diagnose and control diseases.

Biosensors for rapid detection of bacterial pathogens in water, food and environment

Conventional techniques (e.g., culture-based method) for bacterial detection typically require a central laboratory and well-trained technicians, which may take several hours or days. However, recent developments within various disciplines of science and engineering have led to a major paradigm shift in how microorganisms can be detected. The analytical sensors which are widely used for medical applications in the literature are being extended for rapid and on-site monitoring of the bacterial pathogens in food, water and the environment. Especially, within the low-resource settings such as low and middle-income countries, due to the advantages of low cost, rapidness and potential for field-testing, their use is indispensable for sustainable development of the regions. Within this context, this paper discusses analytical methods and biosensors which can be used to ensure food safety, water quality and environmental monitoring. In brief, most of our discussion is focused on various rapid sensors including biosensors and microfluidic chips. The analytical performances such as the sensitivity, specificity and usability of these sensors, as well as a brief comparison with the conventional techniques for bacteria detection, form the core part of the discussion. Furthermore, we provide a holistic viewpoint on how future research should focus on exploring the synergy of different sensing technologies by developing an integrated multiplexed, sensitive and accurate sensors that will enable rapid detection for food safety, water and environmental monitoring.

A Technique for Rapid Bacterial-Density Enumeration through Membrane Filtration and Differential Pressure Measurements

In this article, we present a microfluidic technique for the rapid enumeration of bacterial density with a syringe filter to trap bacteria and the quantification of the bacterial density through pressure difference measurement across the membrane. First, we established the baseline differential pressure and hydraulic resistance for a filtration membrane by fully wetting the filter with DI water. Subsequently, when bacteria were infused and trapped at the pores of the membrane, the differential pressure and hydraulic resistance also increased. We characterized the infusion time required for the bacterial sample to achieve a normalized hydraulic resistance of 1.5. An equivalent electric-circuit model and calibration data sets from parametric studies were used to determine the general form of a calibration curve for the prediction of the bacterial density of a bacterial sample. As a proof of concept, we demonstrated through blind tests with Escherichia coli that the device is capable of determining the bacterial density of a sample ranging from 7.3 × 10⁶ to 2.2 × 10⁸ CFU/mL with mean and median accuracies of 87.21% and 91.33%, respectively. The sample-to-result time is 19 min for a sample with lower detection threshold, while for higher-bacterial-density samples the measurement time is further shortened to merely 8 min.

Giant Magnetoresistance Biosensors for Food Safety Applications

Nowadays, the increasing number of foodborne disease outbreaks around the globe has aroused the wide attention of the food industry and regulators. During food production, processing, storage, and transportation, microorganisms may grow and secrete toxins as well as other harmful substances. These kinds of food contamination from microbiological and chemical sources can seriously endanger human health. The traditional detection methods such as cell culture and colony counting cannot meet the requirements of rapid detection due to some intrinsic shortcomings, such as being time-consuming, laborious, and requiring expensive instrumentation or a central laboratory. In the past decade, efforts have been made to develop rapid, sensitive, and easy-to-use detection platforms for on-site food safety regulation. Herein, we review one type of promising biosensing platform that may revolutionize the current food surveillance approaches, the giant magnetoresistance (GMR) biosensors. Benefiting from the advances of nanotechnology, hundreds to thousands of GMR biosensors can be integrated into a fingernail-sized area, allowing the higher throughput screening of food samples at a lower cost. In addition, combined with on-chip microfluidic channels and filtration function, this type of GMR biosensing system can be fully automatic, and less operator training is required. Furthermore, the compact-sized GMR biosensor platforms could be further extended to related food contamination and the field screening of other pathogen targets.

A Comprehensive Analysis of ATP Tests: Practical Use and Recent Progress in the Total Adenylate Test for the Effective Monitoring of Hygiene

ABSTRACT

Rapid hygiene monitoring tests based on the presence of ATP have been widely used in the food industry to ensure that adequate cleanliness is maintained. In this study, the practical applications and limitations of these tests and recent technological progress for facilitating more accurate control were evaluated. The presence of ATP on a surface indicates improper cleaning and the presence of contaminants, including organic debris and bacteria. Food residues are indicators of insufficient cleaning and are direct hazards because they may provide safe harbors for bacteria, provide sources of nutrients for bacterial growth, interfere with the antimicrobial activity of disinfectants, and support the formation of biofilms. Residues of allergenic foods on a surface may increase the risk of allergen cross-contact. However, ATP tests cannot detect bacteria or allergenic proteins directly. To ensure efficient use of commercially available ATP tests, in-depth knowledge is needed regarding their practical applications, methods for determining pass-fail limits, and differences in performance. Conventional ATP tests have limitations due to possible hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and AMP, which further hinders the identification of food residues. To overcome this problem, a total adenylate test was developed that could detect ATP+ADP+AMP (A3 test). The A3 test is suitable for the detection of adenylates from food residues and useful for verification of hygiene levels. The A3 test in conjunction with other methods, such as microorganism culture and food allergen tests, may be a useful strategy for identifying contamination sources and facilitating effective hygiene management.

HIGHLIGHTS

Detection of Potential Microbial Contaminants and Their Toxins in Fermented Dairy Products: a Comprehensive Review

Fermented dairy products are dominant constituents of daily diets around the world due to their desired organoleptic properties, long shelf life, and high nutritional value. Probiotics are often incorporated into these products for their health and technological benefits. However, the safety and possible contamination of fermented dairy products during the manufacturing process could have significant deleterious health and economic impacts. Pathogenic microorganisms and toxins from different sources in fermented dairy products contribute to outbreaks and toxicity cases. Although the health and nutritional benefits of fermented dairy products have been extensively investigated, safety hazards due to contamination are relatively less explored. As a preventive measure, it is crucial to accurately identify and determine the associated microbiota or their toxins. It is noteworthy to highlight the importance of detecting not only the pathogenic microbiota but also their toxic metabolites so that putative outbreaks can thereby be prevented or detected even before they cause harmful effects to human health. In this context, this review focuses on describing techniques designed to detect potential contaminants; also, the advantages and disadvantages of these techniques were summarized. Moreover, this review compiles the most recent and efficient analytical methods for detecting microbial hazards and toxins in different fermented dairy products of different origins. Causative agents behind contamination incidences are also discussed briefly to aid in future prevention measures, as well as detection approaches and technologies employed. Such approach enables the elucidation of the best strategies to control contamination in fermented dairy product manufacturing processes.

Current Methods for Extraction and Concentration of Foodborne Bacteria with Glycan-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles: A Review

Rapid and accurate food pathogen detection is an essential step to preventing foodborne illnesses. Before detection, removal of bacteria from the food matrix and concentration to detectable levels are often essential steps. Although many reviews discuss rapid concentration methods for foodborne pathogens, the use of glycan-coated magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) is often omitted. This review seeks to analyze the potential of this technique as a rapid and cost-effective solution for concentration of bacteria directly from foods. The primary focus is the mechanism of glycan-coated MNP binding, as well as its current applications in concentration of foodborne pathogens. First, a background on the synthesis, properties, and applications of MNPs is provided. Second, synthesis of glycan-coated particles and their theorized mechanism for bacterial adhesion is described. Existing research into extraction of bacteria directly from food matrices is also analyzed. Finally, glycan-coated MNPs are compared to the magnetic separation technique of immunomagnetic separation (IMS) in terms of cost, time, and other factors. At its current state, glycan-coated MNPs require more research to fully identify the mechanism, potential for optimization, and extraction capabilities directly in food matrices. However, current research indicates glycan-coated MNPs are an incredibly cost-effective method for rapid food pathogen extraction and concentration.

New analytical methods using carbon-based nanomaterials for detection of Salmonella species as a major food poisoning organism in water and soil resources

Salmonella is one of the most prevalent causing agents of food- and water-borne illnesses, posing an ongoing public health threat. These food-poisoning bacteria contaminate the resources at different stages such as production, aggregation, processing, distribution, as well as marketing. According to the high incidence of salmonellosis, effective strategies for early-stage detection are required at the highest priority. Since traditional culture-dependent methods and polymerase chain reaction are labor-intensive and time-taking, identification of early and accurate detection of Salmonella in food and water samples can prevent significant health economic burden and lessen the costs. The immense potentiality of biosensors in diagnosis, such as simplicity in operation, the ability of multiplex analysis, high sensitivity, and specificity, have driven research in the evolution of nanotechnology, innovating newer biosensors. Carbon nanomaterials enhance the detection sensitivity of biosensors while obtaining low levels of detection limits due to their possibility to immobilize huge amounts of bioreceptor units at insignificant volume. Moreover, conjugation and functionalization of carbon nanomaterials with metallic nanoparticles or organic molecules enables surface functional groups. According to these remarkable properties, carbon nanomaterials are widely exploited in the development of novel biosensors. To be specific, carbon nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene and fullerenes function as transducers in the analyte recognition process or surface immobilizers for biomolecules. Herein the potential application of carbon nanomaterials in the development of novel Salmonella biosensors platforms is reviewed comprehensively. In addition, the current problems and critical analyses of the future perspectives of Salmonella biosensors are discussed.