Relationship between Resting-State Alpha Coherence and Cognitive Control in Individuals with Internet Gaming Disorder: A Multimodal Approach Based on Resting-State Electroencephalography and Event-Related Potentials

Biomarkers of Internet Gaming Disorder-A Narrative Review

Since game mechanics and their visual aspects have become more and more addictive, there is concern about the growing prevalence of Internet gaming disorder (IGD). In the current narrative review, we searched PubMed and Google Scholar databases for the keywords "igd biomarker gaming" and terms related to biomarker modalities. The biomarkers we found are grouped into several categories based on a measurement method and are discussed in the light of theoretical addiction models (tripartite neurocognitive model, I-PACE). Both theories point to gaming-related problems with salience and inhibition. The first dysfunction makes an individual more susceptible to game stimuli (raised reward seeking), and the second negatively impacts resistance to these stimuli (decreased cognitive control). The IGD patients' hypersensitivity to reward manifests mostly in ventral striatum (VS) measurements. However, there is also empirical support for a ventral-to-dorsal striatal shift and transition from goal-directed to habitual behaviors. The deficits in executive control are demonstrated in parameters related to the prefrontal cortex (PFC), especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). In general, the connection of PFC with reward under cortex nuclei seems to be dysregulated. Other biomarkers include reduced P3 amplitudes, high-frequency heart rate variability (HRV), and the number of eye blinks and saccadic eye movements during the non-resting state. A few studies propose a diagnostic (multimodal) model of IGD. The current review also comments on inconsistencies in findings in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and precuneus and makes suggestions for future IGD studies.

Effect of excessive internet gaming on inhibitory control based on resting EEG and ERP

Previous research indicates that individuals with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) show impaired inhibitory control and abnormal EEG/ERP patterns. However, it is unclear how those individuals with excessive Internet game use (EUG) but without addiction differ. This study examined inhibitory control, resting EEG, and ERP in EUG gamers compared to non-gamers. Fifteen participants in each group underwent 4-min eyes-closed EEG recordings and a color-word Stroop task. Results showed no significant differences in reaction time, accuracy, or P3 amplitude between EUG gamers and non-gamers. However, EUG gamers exhibited shortened P3 latency, which may suggest enhanced inhibitory control. Additionally, EUG gamers showed reduced theta and alpha band power during the resting state compared to non-gamers. These findings suggest that excessive gaming without addiction may enhance inhibitory control and influence brain activity differently from IGD.

Problematic Gaming and Gambling: A Systematic Review of Task-Specific EEG Protocols

Even though gaming and gambling bear similar problematic behavioral aspects, there are no recognizable neurophysiological biomarkers or features characterizing and/or distinguishing these conditions. A systematic review of the literature with a focus on methods was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science (Web of Science Core Collection), EBSCOhost Research Databases (APA PsycINFO; APA PsycArticles; OpenDissertations; ERIC) databases. Following search terms were used to search the databases: ERP, "event related potential*", EP, "evoked potential*", SS, "steady state", EEG, electroencephal*; gam*. Data about the participants (total number, gender, age), main aim of the study and information about the experimental setup (experimental task description, stimuli used, ERPs measured (latency windows and placement of the electrodes), process evaluated) was extracted. A total of 24 studies were revised (problematic gaming - 16, pathological gambling - 8). The experimental protocols could be grouped into 3 main target domains (Cue-reactivity, General Information processing and Reward Processes & Risk Assessment). Sample-related limitations (small sample sizes, gender differences, differences between the groups regarding potential confounding variables) and heterogeneity regarding the experimental tasks, implementation and interpretation reviewed. Gambling-related research is highly focused on the investigation of the reward-related processes, whereas gaming-related research is mostly focused on the altered aspects of more general information processing. A vast heterogeneity regarding the ERP experimental paradigms being used and lack of clear guidelines and standardized procedures prevents identification of measures capable to reliably discriminate or characterize the population susceptible to addictive behavior or being able to diagnose and monitor these disorders.

EEG-based neurophysiological indices for expert psychomotor performance - a review

A primary objective of current human neuropsychological performance research is to define the physiological correlates of adaptive knowledge utilization, in order to support the enhanced execution of both simple and complex tasks. Within the present article, electroencephalography-based neurophysiological indices characterizing expert psychomotor performance, will be explored. As a means of characterizing fundamental processes underlying efficient psychometric performance, the neural efficiency model will be evaluated in terms of alpha-wave-based selective cortical processes. Cognitive and motor domains will initially be explored independently, which will act to encapsulate the task-related neuronal adaptive requirements for enhanced psychomotor performance associating with the neural efficiency model. Moderating variables impacting the practical application of such neuropsychological model, will also be investigated. As a result, the aim of this review is to provide insight into detectable task-related modulation involved in developed neurocognitive strategies which support heightened psychomotor performance, for the implementation within practical settings requiring a high degree of expert performance (such as sports or military operational settings).

Regional brain activity of resting-state fMRI and auditory oddball ERP with multimodal approach in individuals with internet gaming disorder

Background and aims

Resting-state brain activity may be associated with the ability to perform tasks; however, a multimodal approach involving resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potentials (ERPs) has not been widely used to investigate addictive disorders.

Methods

We explored resting-state fMRI and auditory oddball ERP values from 26 with internet gaming disorder (IGD) patients and 27 age- and intelligence quotient-matched healthy controls (HCs). To assess the characteristics of resting-state fMRI, we calculated regional homogeneity (ReHo), amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), and fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (fALFF); we also calculated the P3 component of the ERPs.

Results

Compared with HCs, the individuals with IGD exhibited significant decreases in ReHo and fALFF values in the left inferior occipital gyrus, increased ReHo and ALFF values in the right precuneus, increased ALFF in the left superior frontal gyrus, and lower P3 amplitudes in the midline centro-parietal area during the auditory ERP task. Furthermore, the regional activity of resting-state fMRI in the right inferior temporal gyrus and the occipital regions were positively correlated with the P3 amplitudes in IGD patients, whereas ReHo values of the left hippocampus and the right amygdala were negatively correlated with P3.

Discussion and conclusions

Our results suggest that IGD patients have difficulty interacting effectively with cognitive function and sensory processing, although its interpretations need some cautions. The findings in this study will broaden the overall understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms that underlie IGD pathophysiology.