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Smeets H, Verbrugge B, Bulbena X, Hristova L, Vogt J, van Beckhoven I. European Joint Programme on Rare Diseases workshop: LAMA2-muscular dystrophy: paving the road to therapy March 17-19, 2023, Barcelona, Spain. Neuromuscul Disord 2024; 36:16-22. [PMID: 38306718 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmd.2024.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 12/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
The European Joint Programme on Rare Diseases (EJPRD) funded the workshop "LAMA2-Muscular Dystrophy: Paving the road to therapy", bringing together 40 health-care professionals, researchers, patient-advocacy groups, Early-Career Scientists and other stakeholders from 14 countries. Progress in natural history, pathophysiology, trial readiness, and treatment strategies was discussed together with efforts to increase patient-awareness and strengthen collaborations. Key outcomes were (a) ongoing natural history studies in 7 countries already covered more than 350 patients. The next steps are to include additional countries, harmonise data collection and define a minimal dataset; (b) therapy development was largely complementary. Approaches included LAMA2-replacement and correction, LAMA1-reactivation, mRNA modulation, linker-protein expression, targeting downstream processes and identifying modifiers, using viral vectors, muscle stem cells, iPSC and mouse models and patient lines; (c) LAMA2-Europe will inform patients (-representatives) worldwide on standards of care and scientific progress, and enable sharing experiences. Follow-up monthly online meetings and research repositories have been established to create sustainable collaborations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hubert Smeets
- Department of Toxicogenomics, Research Institutes MHeNS and GROW, Maastricht University, UNS40 Maastricht 6229ER, the Netherlands.
| | - Bram Verbrugge
- LAMA2-MD Foundation "Voor Sara", Dordrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Julia Vogt
- Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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2
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Fawaz A, Ferraresi A, Isidoro C. Systems Biology in Cancer Diagnosis Integrating Omics Technologies and Artificial Intelligence to Support Physician Decision Making. J Pers Med 2023; 13:1590. [PMID: 38003905 PMCID: PMC10672164 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13111590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer is the second major cause of disease-related death worldwide, and its accurate early diagnosis and therapeutic intervention are fundamental for saving the patient's life. Cancer, as a complex and heterogeneous disorder, results from the disruption and alteration of a wide variety of biological entities, including genes, proteins, mRNAs, miRNAs, and metabolites, that eventually emerge as clinical symptoms. Traditionally, diagnosis is based on clinical examination, blood tests for biomarkers, the histopathology of a biopsy, and imaging (MRI, CT, PET, and US). Additionally, omics biotechnologies help to further characterize the genome, metabolome, microbiome traits of the patient that could have an impact on the prognosis and patient's response to the therapy. The integration of all these data relies on gathering of several experts and may require considerable time, and, unfortunately, it is not without the risk of error in the interpretation and therefore in the decision. Systems biology algorithms exploit Artificial Intelligence (AI) combined with omics technologies to perform a rapid and accurate analysis and integration of patient's big data, and support the physician in making diagnosis and tailoring the most appropriate therapeutic intervention. However, AI is not free from possible diagnostic and prognostic errors in the interpretation of images or biochemical-clinical data. Here, we first describe the methods used by systems biology for combining AI with omics and then discuss the potential, challenges, limitations, and critical issues in using AI in cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ciro Isidoro
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathology, Department of Health Sciences, Università del Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy; (A.F.); (A.F.)
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Menna G, Piaser Guerrato G, Bilgin L, Ceccarelli GM, Olivi A, Della Pepa GM. Is There a Role for Machine Learning in Liquid Biopsy for Brain Tumors? A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9723. [PMID: 37298673 PMCID: PMC10253654 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The paucity of studies available in the literature on brain tumors demonstrates that liquid biopsy (LB) is not currently applied for central nervous system (CNS) cancers. The purpose of this systematic review focused on the application of machine learning (ML) to LB for brain tumors to provide practical guidance for neurosurgeons to understand the state-of-the-art practices and open challenges. The herein presented study was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA-P (preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols) guidelines. An online literature search was launched on PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science databases using the following query: "((Liquid biopsy) AND (Glioblastoma OR Brain tumor) AND (Machine learning OR Artificial Intelligence))". The last database search was conducted in April 2023. Upon the full-text review, 14 articles were included in the study. These were then divided into two subgroups: those dealing with applications of machine learning to liquid biopsy in the field of brain tumors, which is the main aim of this review (n = 8); and those dealing with applications of machine learning to liquid biopsy in the diagnosis of other tumors (n = 6). Although studies on the application of ML to LB in the field of brain tumors are still in their infancy, the rapid development of new techniques, as evidenced by the increase in publications on the subject in the past two years, may in the future allow for rapid, accurate, and noninvasive analysis of tumor data. Thus making it possible to identify key features in the LB samples that are associated with the presence of a brain tumor. These features could then be used by doctors for disease monitoring and treatment planning.
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Baksheeva VE, Tiulina VV, Iomdina EN, Petrov SY, Filippova OM, Kushnarevich NY, Suleiman EA, Eyraud R, Devred F, Serebryakova MV, Shebardina NG, Chistyakov DV, Senin II, Mitkevich VA, Tsvetkov PO, Zernii EY. Tear nanoDSF Denaturation Profile Is Predictive of Glaucoma. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087132. [PMID: 37108298 PMCID: PMC10139145 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is a frequent blindness-causing neurodegenerative disorder characterized by optic nerve and retinal ganglion cell damage most commonly due to a chronic increase in intraocular pressure. The preservation of visual function in patients critically depends on the timeliness of detection and treatment of the disease, which is challenging due to its asymptomatic course at early stages and lack of objective diagnostic approaches. Recent studies revealed that the pathophysiology of glaucoma includes complex metabolomic and proteomic alterations in the eye liquids, including tear fluid (TF). Although TF can be collected by a non-invasive procedure and may serve as a source of the appropriate biomarkers, its multi-omics analysis is technically sophisticated and unsuitable for clinical practice. In this study, we tested a novel concept of glaucoma diagnostics based on the rapid high-performance analysis of the TF proteome by differential scanning fluorimetry (nanoDSF). An examination of the thermal denaturation of TF proteins in a cohort of 311 ophthalmic patients revealed typical profiles, with two peaks exhibiting characteristic shifts in POAG. Clustering of the profiles according to peaks maxima allowed us to identify glaucoma in 70% of cases, while the employment of artificial intelligence (machine learning) algorithms reduced the amount of false-positive diagnoses to 13.5%. The POAG-associated alterations in the core TF proteins included an increase in the concentration of serum albumin, accompanied by a decrease in lysozyme C, lipocalin-1, and lactotransferrin contents. Unexpectedly, these changes were not the only factor affecting the observed denaturation profile shifts, which considerably depended on the presence of low-molecular-weight ligands of tear proteins, such as fatty acids and iron. Overall, we recognized the TF denaturation profile as a novel biomarker of glaucoma, which integrates proteomic, lipidomic, and metallomic alterations in tears, and monitoring of which could be adapted for rapid non-invasive screening of the disease in a clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoriia E Baksheeva
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-40 Leninskye Gory, 119992 Moscow, Russia
- Institut Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Veronika V Tiulina
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-40 Leninskye Gory, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena N Iomdina
- Helmholtz National Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases, 105062 Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey Yu Petrov
- Helmholtz National Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases, 105062 Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga M Filippova
- Helmholtz National Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases, 105062 Moscow, Russia
| | - Nina Yu Kushnarevich
- Helmholtz National Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases, 105062 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena A Suleiman
- Helmholtz National Medical Research Center of Eye Diseases, 105062 Moscow, Russia
| | - Rémi Eyraud
- Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, CNRS, Institut d Optique Graduate School, Laboratoire Hubert Curien UMR 5516, 42023 Saint-Etienne, France
| | - François Devred
- Institut Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Marina V Serebryakova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-40 Leninskye Gory, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalia G Shebardina
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-40 Leninskye Gory, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitry V Chistyakov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-40 Leninskye Gory, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Ivan I Senin
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-40 Leninskye Gory, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir A Mitkevich
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Philipp O Tsvetkov
- Institut Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Evgeni Yu Zernii
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-40 Leninskye Gory, 119992 Moscow, Russia
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Brito-Rocha T, Constâncio V, Henrique R, Jerónimo C. Shifting the Cancer Screening Paradigm: The Rising Potential of Blood-Based Multi-Cancer Early Detection Tests. Cells 2023; 12:cells12060935. [PMID: 36980276 PMCID: PMC10047029 DOI: 10.3390/cells12060935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide, partly owing to late detection which entails limited and often ineffective therapeutic options. Most cancers lack validated screening procedures, and the ones available disclose several drawbacks, leading to low patient compliance and unnecessary workups, adding up the costs to healthcare systems. Hence, there is a great need for innovative, accurate, and minimally invasive tools for early cancer detection. In recent years, multi-cancer early detection (MCED) tests emerged as a promising screening tool, combining molecular analysis of tumor-related markers present in body fluids with artificial intelligence to simultaneously detect a variety of cancers and further discriminate the underlying cancer type. Herein, we aim to provide a highlight of the variety of strategies currently under development concerning MCED, as well as the major factors which are preventing clinical implementation. Although MCED tests depict great potential for clinical application, large-scale clinical validation studies are still lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Brito-Rocha
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, Research Center (CI-IPOP)/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO-Porto)/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (P.CCC), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
- Master Program in Oncology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (ICBAS-UP), Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-513 Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Constâncio
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, Research Center (CI-IPOP)/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO-Porto)/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (P.CCC), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
- Doctoral Program in Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (ICBAS-UP), Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-513 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rui Henrique
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, Research Center (CI-IPOP)/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO-Porto)/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (P.CCC), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Pathology, Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO-Porto), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Immunology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (ICBAS-UP), Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-513 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carmen Jerónimo
- Cancer Biology and Epigenetics Group, Research Center (CI-IPOP)/RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO-Porto)/Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center Raquel Seruca (P.CCC), Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Immunology, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, University of Porto (ICBAS-UP), Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-513 Porto, Portugal
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Eyraud R, Ayache S, Tsvetkov PO, Kalidindi SS, Baksheeva VE, Boissonneau S, Jiguet-Jiglaire C, Appay R, Nanni-Metellus I, Chinot O, Devred F, Tabouret E. Plasma nanoDSF Denaturation Profile at Baseline Is Predictive of Glioblastoma EGFR Status. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15030760. [PMID: 36765718 PMCID: PMC9913157 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15030760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most frequent and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults. Recently, we demonstrated that plasma denaturation profiles of glioblastoma patients obtained using Differential Scanning Fluorimetry can be automatically distinguished from healthy controls with the help of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Here, we used a set of machine-learning algorithms to automatically classify plasma denaturation profiles of glioblastoma patients according to their EGFR status. We found that Adaboost AI is able to discriminate EGFR alterations in GBM with an 81.5% accuracy. Our study shows that the use of these plasma denaturation profiles could answer the unmet neuro-oncology need for diagnostic predictive biomarker in combination with brain MRI and clinical data, in order to allow for a rapid orientation of patients for a definitive pathological diagnosis and then treatment. We complete this study by showing that discriminating another mutation, MGMT, seems harder, and that post-surgery monitoring using our approach is not conclusive in the 48 h that follow the surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi Eyraud
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien UMR 5516, UJM-Saint-Etienne, University Lyon, CNRS, 42000 Saint Etienne, France
| | | | - Philipp O. Tsvetkov
- Inst Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
- Plateforme Interactome Timone, PINT, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Shanmugha Sri Kalidindi
- Laboratoire Hubert Curien UMR 5516, UJM-Saint-Etienne, University Lyon, CNRS, 42000 Saint Etienne, France
| | - Viktoriia E. Baksheeva
- Inst Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
| | | | - Carine Jiguet-Jiglaire
- Inst Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
- Department of Anatomopathology, Timone Hospital, APHM, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Romain Appay
- Inst Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
- Department of Anatomopathology, Timone Hospital, APHM, 13005 Marseille, France
| | | | - Olivier Chinot
- Inst Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
- Service de Neurooncologie, CHU Timone, APHM, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - François Devred
- Inst Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
- Plateforme Interactome Timone, PINT, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, 13005 Marseille, France
- Correspondence: (F.D.); (E.T.)
| | - Emeline Tabouret
- Inst Neurophysiopathol, INP, Faculté des Sciences Médicales et Paramédicales, Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13005 Marseille, France
- Service de Neurooncologie, CHU Timone, APHM, 13005 Marseille, France
- Correspondence: (F.D.); (E.T.)
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Liquid biopsy: early and accurate diagnosis of brain tumor. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2022; 148:2347-2373. [PMID: 35451698 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-022-04011-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Noninvasive examination is an emerging area in the field of neuro-oncology. Liquid biopsy captures the landscape of genomic alterations of brain tumors and revolutionizes the traditional diagnosis approaches. Rapidly changing sequencing technologies and more affordable prices put the screws on more application of liquid biopsy in clinical settings. In the past few years, extensive application of liquid biopsy has been seen throughout the whole diagnosis and treatment process of brain tumors, including early and accurate detection, characterization and dynamic monitoring. Here, we summarized and compared the most advanced techniques and target molecules or macrostructures related to brain tumor liquid biopsy. We further reviewed and emphasized recent progression in different clinical settings for brain tumors in blood and CSF. The preferred protocol, potential novel biomarkers and future development are discussed in the last part.
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Williams S, Layard Horsfall H, Funnell JP, Hanrahan JG, Khan DZ, Muirhead W, Stoyanov D, Marcus HJ. Artificial Intelligence in Brain Tumour Surgery-An Emerging Paradigm. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13195010. [PMID: 34638495 PMCID: PMC8508169 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13195010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) platforms have the potential to cause a paradigm shift in brain tumour surgery. Brain tumour surgery augmented with AI can result in safer and more effective treatment. In this review article, we explore the current and future role of AI in patients undergoing brain tumour surgery, including aiding diagnosis, optimising the surgical plan, providing support during the operation, and better predicting the prognosis. Finally, we discuss barriers to the successful clinical implementation, the ethical concerns, and we provide our perspective on how the field could be advanced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Williams
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London WC1N 3BG, UK; (H.L.H.); (J.P.F.); (J.G.H.); (D.Z.K.); (W.M.); (H.J.M.)
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
- Correspondence:
| | - Hugo Layard Horsfall
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London WC1N 3BG, UK; (H.L.H.); (J.P.F.); (J.G.H.); (D.Z.K.); (W.M.); (H.J.M.)
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
| | - Jonathan P. Funnell
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London WC1N 3BG, UK; (H.L.H.); (J.P.F.); (J.G.H.); (D.Z.K.); (W.M.); (H.J.M.)
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
| | - John G. Hanrahan
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London WC1N 3BG, UK; (H.L.H.); (J.P.F.); (J.G.H.); (D.Z.K.); (W.M.); (H.J.M.)
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
| | - Danyal Z. Khan
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London WC1N 3BG, UK; (H.L.H.); (J.P.F.); (J.G.H.); (D.Z.K.); (W.M.); (H.J.M.)
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
| | - William Muirhead
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London WC1N 3BG, UK; (H.L.H.); (J.P.F.); (J.G.H.); (D.Z.K.); (W.M.); (H.J.M.)
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
| | - Danail Stoyanov
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
| | - Hani J. Marcus
- Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London WC1N 3BG, UK; (H.L.H.); (J.P.F.); (J.G.H.); (D.Z.K.); (W.M.); (H.J.M.)
- Wellcome/Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Centre for Interventional and Surgical Sciences (WEISS), London W1W 7TY, UK;
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