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Kim HS, Park JE, Lee WH, Kwon YB, Seu YB, Kim KS. Novel Amidine Derivative K1586 Sensitizes Colorectal Cancer Cells to Ionizing Radiation by Inducing Chk1 Instability. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4396. [PMID: 38673980 PMCID: PMC11049894 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25084396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1) is a key mediator of the DNA damage response that regulates cell cycle progression, DNA damage repair, and DNA replication. Small-molecule Chk1 inhibitors sensitize cancer cells to genotoxic agents and have shown preclinical activity as single agents in cancers characterized by high levels of replication stress. However, the underlying genetic determinants of Chk1-inhibitor sensitivity remain unclear. Although treatment options for advanced colorectal cancer are limited, radiotherapy is effective. Here, we report that exposure to a novel amidine derivative, K1586, leads to an initial reduction in the proliferative potential of colorectal cancer cells. Cell cycle analysis revealed that the length of the G2/M phase increased with K1586 exposure as a result of Chk1 instability. Exposure to K1586 enhanced the degradation of Chk1 in a time- and dose-dependent manner, increasing replication stress and sensitizing colorectal cancer cells to radiation. Taken together, the results suggest that a novel amidine derivative may have potential as a radiotherapy-sensitization agent that targets Chk1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Soo Kim
- School of Life Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea;
| | - Ji-Eun Park
- Divisions of Radiation Biomedical Research, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences, Seoul 01812, Republic of Korea;
- School of Radiological & Medico-Oncological Sciences, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Hyung Lee
- R&D Center, Chemical Business Unit, Pharmicell Co., Ltd., Ulsan 45009, Republic of Korea;
| | - Young Bin Kwon
- Central Research Institute, Kyung Nong Co., Ltd., Gyeongju 38175, Republic of Korea;
| | - Young-Bae Seu
- School of Life Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea;
| | - Kwang Seok Kim
- Divisions of Radiation Biomedical Research, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences, Seoul 01812, Republic of Korea;
- School of Radiological & Medico-Oncological Sciences, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
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Alese OB, Wu C, Chapin WJ, Ulanja MB, Zheng-Lin B, Amankwah M, Eads J. Update on Emerging Therapies for Advanced Colorectal Cancer. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book 2023; 43:e389574. [PMID: 37155942 DOI: 10.1200/edbk_389574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common malignancy worldwide. It is projected to increase by 3.2 million new cases and account for 1.6 million deaths by 2040. Mortality is largely due to limited treatment options for patients who present with advanced disease. Thus, the development of effective and tolerable therapies is crucial. Chemotherapy has been the backbone of systemic treatment of advanced CRC, but utility has been limited because of invariable resistance to therapy, narrow mechanisms of action, and unfavorable toxicity profile. Tumors that are mismatch repair-deficient have demonstrated remarkable response to immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy. However, most CRC tumors are mismatch repair-proficient and represent an unmet medical need. Although ERBB2 amplification occurs only in a few cases, it is associated with left-sided tumors and a higher incidence of brain metastasis. Numerous combinations of HER2 inhibitors have demonstrated efficacy, and antibody-drug conjugates against HER2 represent innovative strategies in this area. The KRAS protein has been classically considered undruggable. Fortunately, new agents targeting KRAS G12C mutation represent a paradigm shift in the management of affected patients and could lead the advancement in drug development for the more common KRAS mutations. Furthermore, aberrant DNA damage response is present in 15%-20% of CRCs, and emerging innovative combinations with poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors could improve the current therapeutic landscape. Multiple novel biomarker-driven approaches in the management of patients with advanced CRC tumors are reviewed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olatunji B Alese
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | | | - William J Chapin
- Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Mark B Ulanja
- Christus Ochsner St Patrick Hospital, Lake Charles, LA
| | | | | | - Jennifer Eads
- Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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Gillespie MS, Ward CM, Davies CC. DNA Repair and Therapeutic Strategies in Cancer Stem Cells. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:1897. [PMID: 36980782 PMCID: PMC10047301 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15061897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
First-line cancer treatments successfully eradicate the differentiated tumour mass but are comparatively ineffective against cancer stem cells (CSCs), a self-renewing subpopulation thought to be responsible for tumour initiation, metastasis, heterogeneity, and recurrence. CSCs are thus presented as the principal target for elimination during cancer treatment. However, CSCs are challenging to drug target because of numerous intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of drug resistance. One such mechanism that remains relatively understudied is the DNA damage response (DDR). CSCs are presumed to possess properties that enable enhanced DNA repair efficiency relative to their highly proliferative bulk progeny, facilitating improved repair of double-strand breaks induced by radiotherapy and most chemotherapeutics. This can occur through multiple mechanisms, including increased expression and splicing fidelity of DNA repair genes, robust activation of cell cycle checkpoints, and elevated homologous recombination-mediated DNA repair. Herein, we summarise the current knowledge concerning improved genome integrity in non-transformed stem cells and CSCs, discuss therapeutic opportunities within the DDR for re-sensitising CSCs to genotoxic stressors, and consider the challenges posed regarding unbiased identification of novel DDR-directed strategies in CSCs. A better understanding of the DDR mediating chemo/radioresistance mechanisms in CSCs could lead to novel therapeutic approaches, thereby enhancing treatment efficacy in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S. Gillespie
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (M.S.G.)
- School of Cancer Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - Ciara M. Ward
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (M.S.G.)
| | - Clare C. Davies
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (M.S.G.)
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Zhong NS, Tong WL, Zhang Y, Xiao SN, Liu JM, Li AA, Yao GL, Lin Q, Liu ZL. HELQ suppresses migration and proliferation of non-small cell lung cancer cells by repairing DNA damage and inducing necrosis. Cell Biol Int 2022; 47:188-200. [PMID: 36183369 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
HELQ plays a key role in DNA damage response and cell-cycle checkpoint regulation. It has been implicated in ovarian and pituitary tumors and may play a role in germ cell maintenance. This study investigated the role of HELQ in lung cancer. The expression of HELQ in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was downregulated compared with normal human lungs. Clinical prognostic analysis of Kaplan-Meier plots revealed that patients with NSCLC with low HELQ levels had a reduced overall survival. Further, we found that HELQ depletion enhanced lung cancer cell malignancy. Furthermore, overexpression of HELQ in lung cancer cells reduced cell migration in vitro, while DNA damage repair was inhibited. Both in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that HELQ induces cell death. Mechanistically, we found that cells overexpressing HELQ showed a tendency to induce necrosis. After analyzing the database of HELQ interactors. we found that RIPK3 may interact with it and proved this conclusion by immunoprecipitation. Our findings identified the tumor suppressive role of HELQ in malignant human lung cancer and unraveled a potential therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment through HELQ activation. Moreover, HELQ may also be a predictive biomarker for the clinical predisposition, progression, and prognosis of lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Shan Zhong
- Medical Innovation Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China.,Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Wei Lai Tong
- Medical Innovation Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China.,Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Medical Innovation Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China.,Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Shi Ning Xiao
- Medical Innovation Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China.,Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Jia Ming Liu
- Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - An An Li
- Medical Innovation Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China.,Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Ge Liang Yao
- Medical Innovation Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China.,Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Qing Lin
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Zhi Li Liu
- Institute of Spine and Spinal Cord, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P.R. China
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Parsa FG, Nobili S, Karimpour M, Aghdaei HA, Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad E, Mini E. Fanconi Anemia Pathway in Colorectal Cancer: A Novel Opportunity for Diagnosis, Prognosis and Therapy. J Pers Med 2022; 12:jpm12030396. [PMID: 35330396 PMCID: PMC8950345 DOI: 10.3390/jpm12030396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most commonly diagnosed malignancy and has the second highest mortality rate globally. Thanks to the advent of next-generation sequencing technologies, several novel candidate genes have been proposed for CRC susceptibility. Germline biallelic mutations in one or more of the 22 currently recognized Fanconi anemia (FA) genes have been associated with Fanconi anemia disease, while germline monoallelic mutations, somatic mutations, or the promoter hypermethylation of some FANC genes increases the risk of cancer development, including CRC. The FA pathway is a substantial part of the DNA damage response system that participates in the repair of DNA inter-strand crosslinks through homologous recombination (HR) and protects genome stability via replication fork stabilization, respectively. Recent studies revealed associations between FA gene/protein tumor expression levels (i.e., FANC genes) and CRC progression and drug resistance. Moreover, the FA pathway represents a potential target in the CRC treatment. In fact, FANC gene characteristics may contribute to chemosensitize tumor cells to DNA crosslinking agents such as oxaliplatin and cisplatin besides exploiting the synthetic lethal approach for selective targeting of tumor cells. Hence, this review summarizes the current knowledge on the function of the FA pathway in DNA repair and genomic integrity with a focus on the FANC genes as potential predisposition factors to CRC. We then introduce recent literature that highlights the importance of FANC genes in CRC as promising prognostic and predictive biomarkers for disease management and treatment. Finally, we represent a brief overview of the current knowledge around the FANC genes as synthetic lethal therapeutic targets for precision cancer medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Ghorbani Parsa
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 19857-17413, Iran; (F.G.P.); (H.A.A.)
| | - Stefania Nobili
- Department of Neurosciences, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University “G. D’Annunzio” Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy;
- Center for Advanced Studies and Technology (CAST), University “G. D’Annunzio” Chieti-Pescara, 66100 Chieti, Italy
| | - Mina Karimpour
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-154, Iran;
| | - Hamid Asadzadeh Aghdaei
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 19857-17413, Iran; (F.G.P.); (H.A.A.)
| | - Ehsan Nazemalhosseini-Mojarad
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 19857-17413, Iran
- Correspondence: (E.N.-M.); (E.M.)
| | - Enrico Mini
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy
- DENOTHE Excellence Center, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy
- Correspondence: (E.N.-M.); (E.M.)
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Radiotherapy as a tool to elicit clinically actionable signalling pathways in cancer. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2022; 19:114-131. [PMID: 34819622 PMCID: PMC9004227 DOI: 10.1038/s41571-021-00579-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A variety of targeted anticancer agents have been successfully introduced into clinical practice, largely reflecting their ability to inhibit specific molecular alterations that are required for disease progression. However, not all malignant cells rely on such alterations to survive, proliferate, disseminate and/or evade anticancer immunity, implying that many tumours are intrinsically resistant to targeted therapies. Radiotherapy is well known for its ability to activate cytotoxic signalling pathways that ultimately promote the death of cancer cells, as well as numerous cytoprotective mechanisms that are elicited by cellular damage. Importantly, many cytoprotective mechanisms elicited by radiotherapy can be abrogated by targeted anticancer agents, suggesting that radiotherapy could be harnessed to enhance the clinical efficacy of these drugs. In this Review, we discuss preclinical and clinical data that introduce radiotherapy as a tool to elicit or amplify clinically actionable signalling pathways in patients with cancer.
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Wu Y, Zhao H. CTBP1 strengthens the cisplatin resistance of gastric cancer cells by upregulating RAD51 expression. Oncol Lett 2021; 22:810. [PMID: 34630717 PMCID: PMC8490970 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2021.13071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance is a key factor affecting the treatment of gastric cancer. The resistance of gastric cancer cells to anticancer drugs, such as cisplatin (DDP), remains a major challenge to patient recovery. The present study aimed to investigate the roles of C-terminal-binding protein 1 (CTBP1) in the DDP resistance of gastric cancer cells and to determine its regulatory effect on DNA repair protein RAD51 homolog 1 (RAD51). The DDP-resistant human gastric cancer AGS and HGC cell lines, AGS/DDP and HGC-27/DDP, respectively, were established and CTBP1 expression was detected by western blotting. In addition, Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation and flow cytometry assays were performed to detect the proliferation and apoptosis of these two cell lines following CTBP1 knockdown. The expression levels of apoptosis-related proteins were detected by western blotting. In addition, RAD51 was overexpressed in CTBP1 knockdown cells, and proliferation and apoptosis were subsequently determined using the aforementioned methods. The results demonstrated that CTBP1 expression was notably increased in DDP-resistant gastric cancer cells. Furthermore, CTBP1 knockdown suppressed the proliferation and induced the apoptosis of AGS/DDP and HGC-27/DDP cells. Notably, CTBP1 promoted RAD51 expression in DDP-resistant gastric cancer cells. Overexpression of RAD51 in CTBP1 knockdown AGS/DDP and HGC-27/DDP cells rescued the proliferation and alleviated the apoptosis of these cells. Taken together, the results of the present study suggested that CTBP1 may enhance the DDP resistance of gastric cancer cells by activating RAD51 expression, thus providing a potential novel therapy (CTBP1 knockdown) for the clinical treatment of patients with gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuluo Wu
- Department of Oncology, Guangdong Medical University Affiliated Central People's Hospital of Zhanjiang, Zhanjiang, Guangdong 524000, P.R. China
| | - Haiyang Zhao
- Department of Oncology, Beijing Zhongguancun Hospital, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
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Beyond the Double-Strand Breaks: The Role of DNA Repair Proteins in Cancer Stem-Cell Regulation. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13194818. [PMID: 34638302 PMCID: PMC8508278 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13194818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a tumor cell population maintaining tumor growth and promoting tumor relapse if not wholly eradicated during treatment. CSCs are often equipped with molecular mechanisms making them resistant to conventional anti-cancer therapies whose curative potential depends on DNA damage-induced cell death. An elevated expression of some key DNA repair proteins is one of such defense mechanisms. However, new research reveals that the role of critical DNA repair proteins is extending far beyond the DNA repair mechanisms. This review discusses the diverse biological functions of DNA repair proteins in CSC maintenance and the adaptation to replication and oxidative stress, anti-cancer immune response, epigenetic reprogramming, and intracellular signaling mechanisms. It also provides an overview of their potential therapeutic targeting. Abstract Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are pluripotent and highly tumorigenic cells that can re-populate a tumor and cause relapses even after initially successful therapy. As with tissue stem cells, CSCs possess enhanced DNA repair mechanisms. An active DNA damage response alleviates the increased oxidative and replicative stress and leads to therapy resistance. On the other hand, mutations in DNA repair genes cause genomic instability, therefore driving tumor evolution and developing highly aggressive CSC phenotypes. However, the role of DNA repair proteins in CSCs extends beyond the level of DNA damage. In recent years, more and more studies have reported the unexpected role of DNA repair proteins in the regulation of transcription, CSC signaling pathways, intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). Moreover, DNA damage signaling plays an essential role in the immune response towards tumor cells. Due to its high importance for the CSC phenotype and treatment resistance, the DNA damage response is a promising target for individualized therapies. Furthermore, understanding the dependence of CSC on DNA repair pathways can be therapeutically exploited to induce synthetic lethality and sensitize CSCs to anti-cancer therapies. This review discusses the different roles of DNA repair proteins in CSC maintenance and their potential as therapeutic targets.
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Tomasini PP, Guecheva TN, Leguisamo NM, Péricart S, Brunac AC, Hoffmann JS, Saffi J. Analyzing the Opportunities to Target DNA Double-Strand Breaks Repair and Replicative Stress Responses to Improve Therapeutic Index of Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3130. [PMID: 34201502 PMCID: PMC8268241 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13133130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the ample improvements of CRC molecular landscape, the therapeutic options still rely on conventional chemotherapy-based regimens for early disease, and few targeted agents are recommended for clinical use in the metastatic setting. Moreover, the impact of cytotoxic, targeted agents, and immunotherapy combinations in the metastatic scenario is not fully satisfactory, especially the outcomes for patients who develop resistance to these treatments need to be improved. Here, we examine the opportunity to consider therapeutic agents targeting DNA repair and DNA replication stress response as strategies to exploit genetic or functional defects in the DNA damage response (DDR) pathways through synthetic lethal mechanisms, still not explored in CRC. These include the multiple actors involved in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) through homologous recombination (HR), classical non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), and microhomology-mediated end-joining (MMEJ), inhibitors of the base excision repair (BER) protein poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), as well as inhibitors of the DNA damage kinases ataxia-telangiectasia and Rad3 related (ATR), CHK1, WEE1, and ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM). We also review the biomarkers that guide the use of these agents, and current clinical trials with targeted DDR therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Pellenz Tomasini
- Laboratory of Genetic Toxicology, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Avenida Sarmento Leite, 245, Porto Alegre 90050-170, Brazil; (P.P.T.); (N.M.L.)
- Post-Graduation Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970, Brazil
| | - Temenouga Nikolova Guecheva
- Cardiology Institute of Rio Grande do Sul, University Foundation of Cardiology (IC-FUC), Porto Alegre 90620-000, Brazil;
| | - Natalia Motta Leguisamo
- Laboratory of Genetic Toxicology, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Avenida Sarmento Leite, 245, Porto Alegre 90050-170, Brazil; (P.P.T.); (N.M.L.)
| | - Sarah Péricart
- Laboratoire D’Excellence Toulouse Cancer (TOUCAN), Laboratoire de Pathologie, Institut Universitaire du Cancer-Toulouse, Oncopole, 1 Avenue Irène-Joliot-Curie, 31059 Toulouse, France; (S.P.); (A.-C.B.); (J.S.H.)
| | - Anne-Cécile Brunac
- Laboratoire D’Excellence Toulouse Cancer (TOUCAN), Laboratoire de Pathologie, Institut Universitaire du Cancer-Toulouse, Oncopole, 1 Avenue Irène-Joliot-Curie, 31059 Toulouse, France; (S.P.); (A.-C.B.); (J.S.H.)
| | - Jean Sébastien Hoffmann
- Laboratoire D’Excellence Toulouse Cancer (TOUCAN), Laboratoire de Pathologie, Institut Universitaire du Cancer-Toulouse, Oncopole, 1 Avenue Irène-Joliot-Curie, 31059 Toulouse, France; (S.P.); (A.-C.B.); (J.S.H.)
| | - Jenifer Saffi
- Laboratory of Genetic Toxicology, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Avenida Sarmento Leite, 245, Porto Alegre 90050-170, Brazil; (P.P.T.); (N.M.L.)
- Post-Graduation Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970, Brazil
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