The Monocyte, a Maestro in the Tumor Microenvironment (TME) of Breast Cancer

Breast Cancer Immune Landscape: Interplay Between Systemic and Local Immunity

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most common malignancies in women worldwide. Numerous studies in immuno-oncology and successful trials of immunotherapy have demonstrated the causal role of the immune system in cancer pathogenesis. The interaction between the tumor and the immune system is known to have a dual nature. Despite cytotoxic lymphocyte activity against transformed cells, a tumor can escape immune surveillance and leverage chronic inflammation to maintain its own development. Research on antitumor immunity primarily focuses on the role of the tumor microenvironment, whereas the systemic immune response beyond the tumor site is described less thoroughly. Here, a comprehensive review of the formation of the immune profile in breast cancer patients is offered. The interplay between systemic and local immune reactions as self-sustaining mechanism of tumor progression is described and the functional activity of the main cell populations related to innate and adaptive immunity is discussed. Additionally, the interaction between different functional levels of the immune system and their contribution to the development of the pro- or anti-tumor immune response in BC is highlighted. The presented data can potentially inform the development of new immunotherapy strategies in the treatment of patients with BC.

Recombinant Human IL-32θ Induces Polarization Into M1-like Macrophage in Human Monocytic Cells

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is formed by several immune cells. Notably, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are existed in the TME that induce angiogenesis, metastasis, and proliferation of cancer cells. Recently, a point-mutated variant of IL-32θ was discovered in breast cancer tissues, which suppressed migration and proliferation through intracellular pathways. Although the relationship between cancer and IL-32 has been previously studied, the effects of IL-32θ on TAMs remain elusive. Recombinant human IL-32θ (rhIL-32θ) was generated using an Escherichia coli expression system. To induce M0 macrophage polarization, THP-1 cells were stimulated with PMA. After PMA treatment, the cells were cultured with IL-4 and IL-13, or rhIL-32θ. The mRNA level of M1 macrophage markers (IL-1β, TNFα, inducible nitric oxide synthase) were increased by rhIL-32θ in M0 macrophages. On the other hand, the M2 macrophage markers (CCL17, CCL22, TGFβ, CD206) were decreased by rhIL-32θ in M2 macrophages. rhIL-32θ induced nuclear translocation of the NF-κB via regulation of the MAPK (p38) pathway. In conclusion, point-mutated rhIL-32θ induced the polarization to M1-like macrophages through the MAPK (p38) and NF-κB (p65/p50) pathways.

The role of tumor-associated macrophages in tumor immune evasion

BACKGROUND

Tumor growth is closely linked to the activities of various cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), particularly immune cells. During tumor progression, circulating monocytes and macrophages are recruited, altering the TME and accelerating growth. These macrophages adjust their functions in response to signals from tumor and stromal cells. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), similar to M2 macrophages, are key regulators in the TME.

METHODS

We review the origins, characteristics, and functions of TAMs within the TME. This analysis includes the mechanisms through which TAMs facilitate immune evasion and promote tumor metastasis. Additionally, we explore potential therapeutic strategies that target TAMs.

RESULTS

TAMs are instrumental in mediating tumor immune evasion and malignant behaviors. They release cytokines that inhibit effector immune cells and attract additional immunosuppressive cells to the TME. TAMs primarily target effector T cells, inducing exhaustion directly, influencing activity indirectly through cellular interactions, or suppressing through immune checkpoints. Additionally, TAMs are directly involved in tumor proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Developing innovative tumor-targeted therapies and immunotherapeutic strategies is currently a promising focus in oncology. Given the pivotal role of TAMs in immune evasion, several therapeutic approaches have been devised to target them. These include leveraging epigenetics, metabolic reprogramming, and cellular engineering to repolarize TAMs, inhibiting their recruitment and activity, and using TAMs as drug delivery vehicles. Although some of these strategies remain distant from clinical application, we believe that future therapies targeting TAMs will offer significant benefits to cancer patients.

Comprehensive analysis of human monocyte subsets using full-spectrum flow cytometry and hierarchical marker clustering

Introduction

Exploring monocytes' roles within the tumor microenvironment is crucial for crafting targeted cancer treatments.

Methods

This study unveils a novel methodology utilizing four 20-color flow cytometry panels for comprehensive peripheral immune system phenotyping, specifically targeting classical, intermediate, and non-classical monocyte subsets.

Results

By applying advanced dimensionality reduction techniques like t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (tSNE) and FlowSom analysis, we performed an extensive profiling of monocytes, assessing 50 unique cell surface markers related to a wide range of immunological functions, including activation, differentiation, and immune checkpoint regulation.

Discussion

This in-depth approach significantly refines the identification of monocyte subsets, directly supporting the development of personalized immunotherapies and enhancing diagnostic precision. Our pioneering panel for monocyte phenotyping marks a substantial leap in understanding monocyte biology, with profound implications for the accuracy of disease diagnostics and the success of checkpoint-inhibitor therapies. Key findings include revealing distinct marker expression patterns linked to tumor progression and providing new avenues for targeted therapeutic interventions.

NXPH4 can be used as a biomarker for pan-cancer and promotes colon cancer progression

NXPH4 promotes cancer proliferation and invasion. However, its specific role and mechanism in cancer remain unclear. Transcriptome and clinical data for pan-cancer were derived from the TCGA database. K-M survival curve and univariate Cox were used for prognostic analysis. CIBERSORT and TIMER algorithms were employed to calculate immune cell infiltration. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was employed for investigating the function of NXPH4. Western blot verified differential expression of NXPH4 in colon cancer. Functional assays (CCK-8, plate clonogenicity assay, wound healing assay, and Transwell assay) confirmed the impact of NXPH4 on proliferation, invasion, and migration of colon cancer cells. Dysregulation of NXPH4 in pan-cancer suggests its potential as a diagnostic and prognostic marker for certain cancers, including colon and liver cancer. High expression of NXPH4 in pan-cancer might be associated with the increase in copy number and hypomethylation. NXPH4 expression in pan-cancer is substantially linked to immune cell infiltration in the immune microenvironment. NXPH4 expression is associated with the susceptibility to immunotherapy and chemotherapy. Western blot further confirmed the higher expression of NXPH4 in colon cancer. Knockdown of NXPH4 significantly suppresses proliferation, invasion, and migration of colon cancer cell lines HT-29 and HCT116, as validated by functional assays.

Cellular interactions in tumor microenvironment during breast cancer progression: new frontiers and implications for novel therapeutics

The breast cancer tumor microenvironment (TME) is dynamic, with various immune and non-immune cells interacting to regulate tumor progression and anti-tumor immunity. It is now evident that the cells within the TME significantly contribute to breast cancer progression and resistance to various conventional and newly developed anti-tumor therapies. Both immune and non-immune cells in the TME play critical roles in tumor onset, uncontrolled proliferation, metastasis, immune evasion, and resistance to anti-tumor therapies. Consequently, molecular and cellular components of breast TME have emerged as promising therapeutic targets for developing novel treatments. The breast TME primarily comprises cancer cells, stromal cells, vasculature, and infiltrating immune cells. Currently, numerous clinical trials targeting specific TME components of breast cancer are underway. However, the complexity of the TME and its impact on the evasion of anti-tumor immunity necessitate further research to develop novel and improved breast cancer therapies. The multifaceted nature of breast TME cells arises from their phenotypic and functional plasticity, which endows them with both pro and anti-tumor roles during tumor progression. In this review, we discuss current understanding and recent advances in the pro and anti-tumoral functions of TME cells and their implications for developing safe and effective therapies to control breast cancer progress.

Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts Promote Lymphatic Metastasis in Cholangiocarcinoma via the PDGF-BB/PDGFR-β Mediated Paracrine Signaling Network

Patients with cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) with lymph node metastasis (LNM) have the worst prognosis, even after complete resection; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we established CAF-derived PDGF-BB as a regulator of LMN in CCA. Proteomics analysis revealed upregulation of PDGF-BB in CAFs derived from patients with CCA with LMN (LN+CAFs). Clinically, the expression of CAF-PDGF-BB correlated with poor prognosis and increased LMN in patients with CCA, while CAF-secreted PDGF-BB enhanced lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC)-mediated lymphangiogenesis and promoted the trans-LEC migration ability of tumor cells. Co-injection of LN+CAFs and cancer cells increased tumor growth and LMN in vivo. Mechanistically, CAF-derived PDGF-BB activated its receptor PDGFR-β and its downstream ERK1/2-JNK signaling pathways in LECs to promote lymphoangiogenesis, while it also upregulated the PDGFR-β-GSK-P65-mediated tumor cell migration. Finally, targeting PDGF-BB/PDGFR-β or the GSK-P65 signaling axis prohibited CAF-mediated popliteal lymphatic metastasis (PLM) in vivo. Overall, our findings revealed that CAFs promote tumor growth and LMN via a paracrine network, identifying a promising therapeutic target for patients with advanced CCA.

High Numbers of CD163+ Tumor-Associated Macrophages Predict Poor Prognosis in HER2+ Breast Cancer

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are associated with a poor outcome in breast cancer (BC), but their prognostic value in different BC subtypes has remained somewhat unclear. Here, we investigated the prognostic value of M2-like TAMs (CD163+) and all TAMs (CD68+) in a patient cohort of 278 non-metastatic BC patients, half of whom were HER2+ (n = 139). The survival endpoints investigated were overall survival (OS), breast cancer-specific survival (BCSS) and disease-free survival (DFS). In the whole patient cohort (n = 278), a high CD163+ TAM count and a high CD68+ TAM count were associated with a worse outcome (p ≤ 0.023). In HER2+ BC, a high CD163+ TAM count was an independent factor for a poor prognosis across all the investigated survival endpoints (p < 0.001). The prognostic effect was evident in both the HER2+/hormone receptor-positive (p < 0.001) and HER2+/hormone receptor-negative (p ≤ 0.012) subgroups and regardless of the provision of adjuvant trastuzumab (p ≤ 0.002). In HER2-negative BC, the CD163+ TAM count was not significantly associated with survival. These results suggest that a high CD163+ TAM count predicts an inferior outcome, especially in HER2+ BC patients, and as adjuvant trastuzumab did not overcome the poor prognostic effect, combination treatments including therapies targeting the macrophage function could represent an effective therapeutic approach in HER2+ BC.

The diverse effects of cisplatin on tumor microenvironment: Insights and challenges for the delivery of cisplatin by nanoparticles

Cisplatin is a well-known platinum-based chemotherapy medication that is widely utilized for some malignancies. Despite the direct cytotoxic consequences of cisplatin on tumor cells, studies in the recent decade have revealed that cisplatin can also affect different cells and their secretions in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Cisplatin has complex impacts on the TME, which may contribute to its anti-tumor activity or drug resistance mechanisms. These regulatory effects of cisplatin play a paramount function in tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. This paper aims to review the diverse impacts of cisplatin and nanoparticles loaded with cisplatin on cancer cells and also non-cancerous cells in TME. The impacts of cisplatin on immune cells, tumor stroma, cancer cells, and also hypoxia will be discussed in the current review. Furthermore, we emphasize the challenges and prospects of using cisplatin in combination with other adjuvants and therapeutic modalities that target TME. We also discuss the potential synergistic effects of cisplatin with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and other agents with anticancer potentials such as polyphenols and photosensitizers. Furthermore, the potential of nanoparticles for targeting TME and better delivery of cisplatin into tumors will be discussed.

Tumor-Associated Macrophage Targeting of Nanomedicines in Cancer Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is pivotal in tumor growth and metastasis, aligning with the "Seed and Soil" theory. Within the TME, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a central role, profoundly influencing tumor progression. Strategies targeting TAMs have surfaced as potential therapeutic avenues, encompassing interventions to block TAM recruitment, eliminate TAMs, reprogram M2 TAMs, or bolster their phagocytic capabilities via specific pathways. Nanomaterials including inorganic materials, organic materials for small molecules and large molecules stand at the forefront, presenting significant opportunities for precise targeting and modulation of TAMs to enhance therapeutic efficacy in cancer treatment. This review provides an overview of the progress in designing nanoparticles for interacting with and influencing the TAMs as a significant strategy in cancer therapy. This comprehensive review presents the role of TAMs in the TME and various targeting strategies as a promising frontier in the ever-evolving field of cancer therapy. The current trends and challenges associated with TAM-based therapy in cancer are presented.

Secretome analysis of breast cancer cells to identify potential target proteins of Ipomoea turpethum extract-loaded nanoparticles in the tumor microenvironment

Background: Breast cancer is the leading cause of frequent malignancy and morbidity among women across the globe, with an increment of 0.5% incidences every year. The deleterious effects of traditional treatment on off-target surrounding cells make it difficult to win the battle against breast cancer. Hence, an advancement in the therapeutic approach is crucial. Nanotechnology is one of the emerging methods for precise, targeted, and efficient drug delivery in cells. The previous study has demonstrated the cytotoxic effect of Ipomoea turpethum extract on breast cancer cells delivered via NIPAAM-VP-AA nanoparticles (NVA-IT). Manipulating the tumor microenvironment (TME) to inhibit cancer progression, invasion, and metastasis seems to be very insightful for researchers these days. With the help of secretome analysis of breast cancer cells after treatment with NVA-IT, we have tried to find out the possible TME manipulation achieved to favor a better prognosis of the disease. Method: MCF-7 and MDA MB-231 cells were treated with the IC50 value of NVA-IT, and the medium was separated from the cells after 24 h of the treatment. Nano LCMS/MS analysis was performed to identify the secretory proteins in the media. Further bioinformatics tools like GENT2, GSCA, GeneCodis 4, and STRING were used to identify the key proteins and their interactions. Result: From the nano LCMS/MS analysis, 70 differentially expressed secretory proteins in MCF-7 and 191 in MDA MB-231 were identified in the cell's media. Fifteen key target proteins were filtered using bioinformatics analysis, and the interaction of proteins involved in vesicular trafficking, cell cycle checkpoints, and oxidative stress-related proteins was prominent. Conclusion: This study concluded that I. turpethum extract-loaded NIPAAM-VP-AA nanoparticles alter the secretory proteins constituting the TME to cease cancer cell growth and metastasis.

The combination of the HDAC1 inhibitor SAHA and doxorubicin has synergic efficacy in triple negative breast cancer in vivo

Vorinostat (SAHA) is a histone deacetylase inhibitor that exerts its effects through epigenetic regulation. Specifically, SAHA can inhibit the proliferation of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells alone or in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents. Doxorubicin (DOX), a traditional chemotherapeutic drug, exhibits a potent cytotoxic effect on cancer cells while also inducing strong toxic effects. In this study, we investigated the synergistic potential of these two drugs in combination against TNBC. Our results suggested that the combination of these two drugs could enhance the inhibitory effect on cancer cell proliferation, resulting in alterations in cell mitotic phase, and suppression of cancer cell stemness. Moreover, our in vivo study unveiled that when SAHA was combined with DOX, it not only exhibited an inhibitory effect on tumor metastasis but also played a role in regulating the immune microenvironment within tumors. Overall, the combination of DOX and SAHA presents a promising avenue for innovative combination chemotherapy in the context of TNBC.

Monocytes in Tumorigenesis and Tumor Immunotherapy

Monocytes are highly plastic innate immune cells that display significant heterogeneity during homeostasis, inflammation, and tumorigenesis. Tumor-induced systemic and local microenvironmental changes influence the phenotype, differentiation, and distribution of monocytes. Meanwhile, monocytes and their related cell subsets perform an important regulatory role in the development of many cancers by affecting tumor growth or metastasis. Thanks to recent advances in single-cell technologies, the nature of monocyte heterogeneity and subset-specific functions have become increasingly clear, making it possible to systematically analyze subset-specific roles of monocytes in tumorigenesis. In this review, we discuss recent discoveries related to monocytes and tumorigenesis, and new strategies for tumor biomarker identification and anti-tumor immunotherapy.

A review of the impact of energy balance on triple-negative breast cancer

Cancer cells cannot proliferate without sufficient energy to generate biomass for rapid cell division, as well as to fuel their functions at baseline. For this reason, many recent observational and interventional studies have focused on increasing energy expenditure and/or reducing energy intake during and after cancer treatment. The impact of variance in diet composition and in exercise on cancer outcomes has been detailed extensively elsewhere and is not the primary focus of this review. Instead, in this translational, narrative review we examine studies of how energy balance impacts anticancer immune activation and outcomes in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). We discuss preclinical, clinical observational, and the few clinical interventional studies on energy balance in TNBC. We advocate for the implementation of clinical studies to examine how optimizing energy balance-through changes in diet and/or exercise-may optimize the response to immunotherapy in people with TNBC. It is our conviction that by taking a holistic approach that includes energy balance as a key factor to be considered during and after treatment, cancer care may be optimized, and the detrimental effects of cancer treatment and recovery on overall health may be minimized.

Tertiary Lymphoid Structures (TLSs) and Stromal Blood Vessels Have Significant and Heterogeneous Impact on Recurrence, Lymphovascular and Perineural Invasion amongst Breast Cancer Molecular Subtypes

BACKGROUND

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) mediate local antitumor immunity, and interest in them significantly increased since cancer immunotherapy was implemented. We examined TLS- tumor stromal blood vessel interplay for each breast cancer (BC) molecular subtype related to recurrence, lymphovascular invasion (LVI), and perineural invasion (PnI).

METHODS

TLSs were quantified on hematoxylin and eosin stain specimens followed by CD34/smooth muscle actin (SMA) double immunostaining for stromal blood vessel maturation assessment. Statistical analysis linked microscopy to recurrence, LVI, and PnI.

RESULTS

TLS negative (TLS-) subgroups in each BC molecular subtype (except to Luminal A) have higher LVI, PnI, and recurrence. A significant rise in LVI and PnI were observed for the HER2+/TLS- subgroup (p < 0.001). The triple negative breast cancer (TNBC)/TLS- subgroup had the highest recurrence and invasion risk which was also significantly related to tumor grade. PnI but not LVI significantly influenced recurrence in the TNBC/TLS+ subgroup (p < 0.001). TLS-stromal blood vessel interrelation was different amongst BC molecular subtypes.

CONCLUSION

BC invasion and recurrence are strongly influenced by TLS presence and stromal blood vessels, especially for HER2 and TNBC BC molecular subtypes.

The Omega-3 Docosahexaenoyl Ethanolamide Reduces CCL5 Secretion in Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells Affecting Tumor Progression and Macrophage Recruitment

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), an aggressive breast cancer subtype lacking effective targeted therapies, is considered to feature a unique cellular microenvironment with high infiltration of tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), which contribute to worsening breast cancer patient outcomes. Previous studies have shown the antitumoral actions of the dietary omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in both tumor epithelial and stromal components of the breast cancer microenvironment. Particularly in breast cancer cells, DHA can be converted into its conjugate with ethanolamine, DHEA, leading to a more effective anti-oncogenic activity of the parent compound in estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer cells. Here, we investigated the ability of DHEA to attenuate the malignant phenotype of MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-436 TNBC cell lines, which in turn influenced TAM behaviors. Our findings revealed that DHEA reduced the viability of TNBC cells in a concentration-dependent manner and compromised cell migration and invasion. Interestingly, DHEA inhibited oxygen consumption and extracellular acidification rates, reducing respiration and the glycolytic reserve in both cell lines. In a co-culture system, TNBC cells exposed to DHEA suppressed recruitment of human THP-1 cells, reduced their viability, and the expression of genes associated with TAM phenotype. Interestingly, we unraveled that the effects of DHEA in TNCB cells were mediated by reduced C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) expression and secretion affecting macrophage recruitment. Overall, our data, shedding new light on the antitumoral effects of DHA ethanolamine-conjugated, address this compound as a promising option in the treatment of TNBC patients.